The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) defines animal welfare as animals having the opportunity to be healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe, able to express innate behaviour and the absence of suffering. Animal welfare is not just the absence of suffering or avoidance of negative experiences but is also the promotion of positive experiences. It is both the physical and emotional state of an animal.
Understanding animal welfare from an animal’s perspective is key as THEY are the ones who decide if an experience is positive or negative to them. It is therefore important to understand that what animals need to experience good welfare will often vary from animal to animal, as well as depend on the context in which the animal lives (e.g. its environment, human attitudes and practices, and available resources). In addition, understanding and improving animal welfare can confer important benefits to both animals and people.
Animal welfare is assessed by measuring and evaluating how well an animal’s needs are being met in accordance with the animal’s natural behaviour. This will incorporate assessment of the environment in which the animal lives, whether the animal’s social needs are being met (e.g. being around, or away from other animals of the same kind), how well-nourished the animal is with appropriate nutrition, and the animal’s level of health, both physical and psychological. An animal’s welfare can also vary by factors such as seasonality, work type, animal age, gender, and/or owners’ practices, which is why making welfare assessment a regular, ongoing practice can be beneficial.
1.2 How is Animal Welfare Assessed?
There are many different models, or frameworks, for assessing or defining animal welfare, the most notable of which include the Five Freedoms and the Five Domains which are discussed in sections which follow.
Despite the existence of different assessment frameworks, it is helpful to consider concept of the “Balance of Life Experiences” when seeking to understand and promote animal welfare. In this concept, the ‘ideal’ of a ‘good life’ is something that all owners should strive to achieve by finding small incremental ways to improve an animal’s life experiences and bring their welfare to an acceptable, realistic standard that contributes to them having a life worth living. Brooke’s animal welfare policy provides an example of the practical application of the concept of promoting ‘a good life’ for animals.
Figure 1: Balance of Life Experiences (adapted from [2])
The Five Freedoms
The earliest, and most known, animal welfare guidance is the Five Freedoms. The five freedoms are widely known and used internationally across different species to outline what animals need and want [3]. The five freedoms have given focus to the importance of “understanding, identifying and minimising negative welfare states” [4].
The five freedoms include:
1. Freedom from thirst, hunger & malnutrition
Figure 2: The provision of readily accessible fresh water and nutritious feed are examples which support animals in experiencing freedom from hunger and thirst.
2. Freedom from discomfort & exposure
Figure 3: Example of an appropriate environment where shelter and a comfortable resting is provided to support animals in experiencing freedom from discomfort and exposure.
3. Freedom from pain, injury & disease
Figure 4: Prevention and early diagnosis and treatment are examples which can support animals in experiencing freedom from pain, injury, or disease.
4. Freedom from fear & distress
Figure 5: Ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid mental suffering support animals in experiencing freedom from fear and distress.
5. Freedom to express normal behaviour
Figure 6: Providing animals with sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animal's own kind supports their ability to freely express normal behaviour.
However, as the five freedoms focus is on relieving or avoiding suffering, there is limited focus on the promotion of positive states. Evidence to prove an animal’s ability to experience emotions, such as pain, fear, and stress along with joy, affection, and happiness, has led to welfare assessment being developed to allow for this and to encourage the promotion of positive experiences rather than just alleviating negative.
The Five Domains
The five domains framework for welfare assessment evolved from earlier frameworks to focus on the promotion of positive states of welfare, while continuing to minimise negative ones [2]. The first three domains of nutrition, environment and health focus on the physical condition or state, while the fourth domain of behaviour focuses on the surroundings that can promote or limit the expression of natural behaviour (e.g. the environment, humans, or other animals). These four domains feed into the fifth, the ‘Mental States’ domain, which is the emotions and moods an animal feels, which in turn determines their welfare status. Mental state can be positive or negative, passive, or active.
1. Nutrition
The process of providing or obtaining the food necessary for health & growth.
If feeding higher quality or increased quantity of feeds is not possible, other ways of making improvements in this domain could be feeding animals away from one another to avoid resource guarding or bullying or ensuring that small amounts of forage are always available rather than a large amount fed infrequently.
Figure 7: Providing fresh fodder to working donkeys in small amounts throughout the day to ensure they remain healthy and have sufficient energy as they work.
2. Environment
The surroundings or conditions in which an animal lives or operates can either create conditions of comfort or discomfort.
Promoting comfortable living and working environments for animals can support their welfare, for example by clearing rubbish or hazardous items from the environment, ensuring that social species have the option to be around others of their species, and that all animals are given an opportunity to have free unrestricted movement for at least part of the day and are not tied up.
Figure 8: Example of donkeys in and environment littered with rubbish which can be hazardous to their health when consumed.
3. Health
A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (as defined by the World Health Organisation).
Ensuring that steps are taken to PREVENT health conditions like disease, wounds and lesions, lameness, foot related health issues, eye infections, etc. This can be done by ensuring recommended vaccine schedules are followed, that equipment (e.g. tack, harnesses, collar) is correctly fitted and not rubbing in a particular area, by wiping eyes clean from dust and debris, treating wounds with appropriate products, balancing loads, and not working animals when they are too young, and seeking veterinary advice and help as soon as possible when needed.
Figure 9: Regular cleaning and trimming of hooves is a preventative measure to mitigate lameness in horses.
4. Behaviour
The way in which an animal behaves in response to a particular situation or stimulus, whereby the animal can express its natural behaviours, including satisfying and engaging environment-focused and inter-animalactivities.
This also includes handling, which describes how a human works with, responds to or interacts with an animal in its surroundings.
Figure 10: Example of positive human-animal interaction because of compassionate handling.
For most animals, handling is essential for their management and healthcare. However, for working animals, handling is prevalent each day of their lives. These animals work and live alongside people, meaning that handling is one of the most frequent events they experience. If handling is inhumane then it is relentless and enduring. However, if handling is compassionate, it can be an enjoyable experience for them. Handling can be a way to increase the number of positive experiences that an animal has across its lifetime. [5]
Animals remember whether an interaction with a human has been positive or negative and this will affect the way they behave, with negative human-animal interactions more likely to result in fear behaviour. Handling should correspond with LIMA principles (Least Invasive Minimally Aversive) [6]. By treating your animal compassionately, ensuring that handling is done in a calm, patient, kind way, this will result in a happier animal where the behavioural domain is met. It is equally important to allow an animal with opportunities to exhibit normal behaviour, such as social interactions with its own species, foraging and grazing behaviour and locomotion.
5. Mental State
Positive and negative experiences within the other four domains influence whether an animal’s mental state is positive or negative.
For example, if an animal is hungry or thirsty, they will experience negative emotions, while if an animal is being handled calmly and shown compassion, they will likely experience positive emotions.
While animals may display quick, emotional responses to an immediate stimulus, they also experience affective states which are longer lasting mood states (such as anxiety or depression) because of an accumulation of experiences. Thus, to improve animal welfare it is important to seek to understand and assess both their positive AND negative experiences within each domain and consider how an animal’s experiences within each of the four domains may be contributing to its mental state AND influencing its overall welfare.
Figure 11: Example of an animal experiencing a negative mental state.
The "Five Domains" model for assessing animal welfare
Figure 12: The "Five Domains" model for assessing animal welfare [2]
Examples of positive & negative experiences within the Five Domains framework
Figure 13: Examples of positive and negative experiences within the Five Domains framework [7]
Comparing the Five Freedoms and Five Domains of Animal Welfare Frameworks
The five freedoms aims to ensure that the animal is completely free of all the specific negative areas, and this can be seen as unrealistic or difficult to achieve, especially with working animals or in Low- or Middle-Income Countries (LMICs). Whereas the five domains considers the fulfilment of more domains as more important for the animal than improvement in a few separate indicators. The other key difference between the two frameworks for assessing welfare, is that the five freedoms focuses on avoidance of negative suffering, and views welfare as a potentially negative concept, whereas the five domains focuses on promoting positive welfare and views welfare as encapsulating the experiences, positive and negative, that animals have over their lifetime.
With the five domains, the crucial element is that each domain is addressed in some way. Gradual improvements in all five domains are more important than a big, or many, improvements in one domain, whilst other domains go unmet. For owners struggling to determine how they can meet each domain, some real-life examples are given below. Creating opportunities to meet elements within each of the five domains should be prioritized by communities with animals.
“The overall objective is to provide opportunities for animals to ‘thrive’ not simply ‘survive’…” [4]
1.3 Animals Feelings and Needs
Not only do animals have senses such as sight, hearing, etc. but they can also experience emotions associated with those senses, such as taking pleasure in eating tasty food, comfort, and security by socializing with others of their species etc., which is why animals are recognized as sentient beings. Animal sentience is defined as recognizing animals as sentient beings that can be aware of their own feelings and emotions. This includes both having the ability to have both negative feelings like pain, frustration, and fear as well as positive feelings like comfort, enjoyment, and contentment.
One of the best ways to understand what animals need is to observe them.
PRACTICE ACTIVITY
Observe Which Animal Welfare Needs are Being Met/Unmet
Watch the example videos provided below, or alternatively observe animals in their local context with community members for five to ten minutes.
Consider the five domains framework for assessing animal welfare, and make a list of:
1) the things the animals need which they are getting from their environment, resources and/or people around them, and 2) the things the animals need which they are not getting from their environment, resources and/or people around them.
Working Donkeys in Coal-mine, Pakistan
Working Donkey in Brick Kiln, Pakistan
People and animals are similar in their needs and in their basic feelings or emotions. They are likely to feel quite like you about things which affect their needs and their daily life. Think about what you need to have to have a good life and be happy in terms of your environment, health, nutrition, and behaviour? What do you need to experience and be provided with?
To help you see the world from an animal's perspective, imagine a 'being of unknown origin' appears in your community one day that you don't know anything about.
What does this 'being' need, to have good life?
Use the questions below to help you determine what this 'being' may need to meet its welfare needs and if it has a good life and is happy.
NUTRITION
What does this 'being' need to ensure their nutritional needs are met?
Water and nutritious food - what kind of food/water and how much do they need?
How often do they need to eat (once a day, constantly throughout the day)?
How do they like to eat/be fed (e.g. on the ground, up high, alone, in the company of friends)?
ENVIRONMENT
What does this 'being' need from their enviroment?
What things might they need to help them feel safe and comfortable?
What do they need to rest safely and comfortably overnight (should this be dark, light, cold, hot, what kind of substrate)?
Do they require heat/sun, cooler temperatures, or wet/moist environments?
Can they handle exposure from excessive sun/heat/moisture?
MENTAL
What signs might you look for
to know if they are happy?
HEALTH
What does this 'being' need to ensure their health needs are met? from their environment?
To keep then well and not get sick?
To ensure they can move comfortable and not be in pain?
What provisions might they need to address or prevent injury in this new landscape (e.g. preventative care measures, foot care,)?
What are their options for receiving prompt treatment should ailments arise?
BEHAVIOUR
What does this 'being' need to ensure their behavioural needs are met?
Are they being handled compassionately and have positive interactions with humans (e.g., are they naturally confident or wary towards humans)?
Do they have sufficient free time to rest? (e.g. breaks or down time from activities or interactions)
Can they express their natural behaviours (e.g. foraging, playing, socializing with others)
Do they have opportunities to make choices (e.g. in how they spend their time, who they spend their time with, where they go)?
Promoting understanding of animals’ needs, feelings, and lived experiences from the perspective of animals can be helpful to promoting empathy and compassion for animals, and related positive animal-human interactions. Similarly, understanding the importance of animals to people, and the nature of the human-animal relationship will help you understand how you may be able to communicate and motivate people to improve their animals’ welfare by framing the benefits of change in terms of what they most value about their animals.
Most communities are not accustomed to being asked for their expertise. Mapping is a great first tool to begin with because it gets the communication and discussion going between you and the community. Local people are rich in knowledge and understanding about their own environment and surroundings, as this is where their families have lived often for generations, so maps drawl by the local community are usually detailed, authentic and accurate.
This particular map is a visual representation of the important places, services and resources in the area, as seen and understood and perceived by the community at the present moment. The map will include houses, roads, basic infrastructure, working places, natural resources, and specific resource and service locations.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To understand which resources and services are most important to the community • To understand the power dynamics surrounding resources within the community – who owns/controls the resources • To identify gaps in available resources and services
2 hours per map
Materials needed:
Chart paper, note cards, markers or other locally available resources, like sticks, stones, straw, beans, seeds, coloured powders or saw dust, etc.
Keyword Search Tags
Project Phase: Initiation Phase
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach, Community Engagement Approach
Behavioural Drivers (COM-B): Behaviour Change Diagnosis and Planning
The map below illustrates the community’s own village and environment. It includes infrastructure, such as houses, roads, drinking water facilities, working places and natural resources, as well as resources related to working animals such as grazing land, resting, feeding, and watering areas. It identifies which places and people are important to the community, including those that affect the care of their animals, such as the location of feed sellers, veterinarians, agro vets, and clinics.
Figure T1A Resources & services map for a rural agricultural community
Once a village outline had been drawn, the group added the number of animals per household (black dots). Human and animal-related resources and service providers are shown in the legend and include the doctor, school, seed sellers (human); veterinarian, animal feed seller, agro-vet (animal); and borehole (both). In this map, the veterinarian and the borehole are both located on the outskirts of the community and this likely has implications for their daily activities.
Discussions during and after production of the map may focus on the availability, cost and quality of the resources and service providers available in the village.
Resources and Services Map
Step 1
Start by explaining the purpose of the exercise and ask participants to draw an outline of their community on the ground or a large piece of chart paper using local materials, including: • General infrastructure, such as roads and paths, water points, community feed storage • Households in the community, including details of each household’s family members • Important, well-known places, such as clinic, school, temple/mosque, and meeting places
Step 2
Ask participants to indicate households that have working animals. Show the types and numbers of animals using symbols or local materials. Add details such as whether the animals are male or female (e.g. blue for males, red for females) and the kinds of work they do.
Step 3
Ask participants to identify any animal-related resources or services that are available in the community and add them to the map: • Natural resources, such as animal water supplies, resting areas and grazing areas and/or land where feed is grown • Service providers, such as animal health service providers, animal equipment makers, feed sellers, livestock extension workers etc.
Step 4
Ask participants to identify any human-related resources and services that are available in the community and add them to the map: • Natural resources, such as agricultural land, communal land, forest areas, water sources, resting and social areas • Service providers, such as doctors, traditional healers, schools, shops, banks, money lenders, community-based organizations working on animal welfare Ask participants if there is anything else that they would like to show on the map that they think is important to any aspect of their lives or livelihoods.
Step 5
Encourage the group to analyse and discuss what is shown on the map. Consider using the following guiding questions: • Which resources and services are most important and/or used most frequently? Not at all? Why? • Availability and access to resources and services – which are most available, and which are lacking? Who has access and who doesn’t? Why? • Who owns and/or makes the main decisions about land, water and other important or communal resources? • Are there differences in access or availability of these important assets between men, women, youth, and different ethnic, religious or socioeconomic groups? • Quality and cost of available resources and services, noting different people’s views • Which resources degrade and which improve?
Step 6
If the map was drawn on the ground, document it by either transferring it to a piece of paper or take a photo (indicating which direction is north). A copy should be left with the community. Record the community’s analysis and responses in your project action tracker and follow up with the community later if/when you start action planning together.
Facilitator’s Notes
Mapping on the ground is easiest and allows for everyone can walk around it to see the map from different angles. This also allows a large crowd to view the map, contribute to it and easily make changes and corrections based on community discussions.
Consider asking men and women to draw the maps separately. Different participants may draw different maps of the same area and that is ok. It reflects their different views of the community and of the topic discussed. As well, have the two separate maps will validate the results and highlight aspects that are important for men and women.
Remember that you are not controlling the map. Give confidence to people by asking participants to draw the map and gradually take over the entire process themselves.
Intervene only when it is necessary to involve people who are left out. Encourage those who are not participating.
Maps can show how things looked in the past, how they look now and what people would like their community to look like in the future. Maps can also be drawn before and after an intervention to compare changes to available and accessible resources and services.
Next Steps
Mapping in the rapport building stage might follow on with one of the following activities:
T5 Gender Roles and Responsibilities to understand men’s and women’s animal care-giving, management and use roles and responsibilities, and identify whether they desire changes in the division of labour
T7 Historical Timeline to learn which major past events community members perceive to be significant to working animals and people
The maps produced in the initiation phase might be referred to during a both mid-term (monitoring) and final evaluations during to illustrate changes and improvements to working animal resources and services.
This map shows a visual representation of the welfare status of animals within a community and the effects on people and animals. Using this tool will begin to focus both you and the community on the human and animal welfare issues that need further investigation.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To understand community participants’ perceptions about their main animal welfare issues and gauge their level of awareness about good/bad animal welfare states • To identify the status of animals’ welfare in households in the community and generate their motivation to improve their animals’ welfare
2 hours
Materials needed:
Materials needed: Chart paper, note cards, markers or other locally available resources, like sticks, stones, straw, beans, seeds, coloured powders or saw dust, etc.
Keyword Search Tags
Project Phase: Initiation Phase
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach, Community Engagement Approach
Behavioural Drivers (COM-B): Behaviour Change Diagnosis and Planning, Motivation
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools, Needs Assessment
Specific Topics: Animal Husbandry and Management; Animal Welfare, Feelings and Needs
Animal welfare issues map
An animal welfare map (Figure T1b) shows the welfare status of animals in each household within the community, based on specific factors that the community find important. Maps will vary depending on how well the community understands animal welfare and perceives the welfare of its working animals at this early stage.
The map may contain a mixture of:
Animal-based observations, such as weak and healthy animals, lame animals, animals with wounds or injuries.
Owner-based observations related to the behaviour and management practices e.g. who overloads/beats their animal or who doesn’t keep their animal’s shelter clean.
Resource availability and access, such as who has sufficient space or access to grazing land for keeping animals and who does not.
This map can be used to analyse the current animal welfare situation in the community and to identify the initial welfare problems that come to mind. Displaying and discussing the welfare status of each person’s animal is the first step in creating peer pressure for change. The map may also be used as a visual baseline that communities can use to compare against their future progress. When repeated after a period of time, changes in extent of animals with poor welfare status and availability of resources to care for them can be observed by comparing maps.
Figure T1B Animal welfare map from an equine-owning community
This map shows the welfare status of the animals in each household. Once the households with either a female (F) or male (M) horse (black dot) or donkey (white dot) were identified, the group identified animals in good (✓) or bad (x) condition. They then added some specific indicators of negative animal welfare: presence of wounds, malnutrition (lack of food) and beating (whip), and good animal welfare: available shade (trees) or shelter.
Based on the map, the group identified who they considered to be the best owners. They discussed reasons for the observed welfare status of animals, including why there were wounds on the animal and how they could be prevented.
Animal Welfare Issues Map
Step 1
Start by explaining the purpose of the exercise and ask participants to draw an outline of their community on the ground or a large piece of chart paper using local materials, including: • General infrastructure, such as roads and paths, water points, community feed storage • Households in the community • Important, well-known places, such as clinic, school, temple/mosque, and meeting places
Step 2
Ask participants to indicate households that have animals. Show the types and numbers of animals using symbols or local materials. Add details such as whether the animals are male or female (e.g. blue for males, red for females) and the kinds of work they do.
Step 3
Ask participants to discuss and agree which animal is the best in the community. Mark it on the map using a symbol next to the house. (In figure 1B, ✓ = good, x = bad) Then ask if any other animals in the community are in a similarly good condition. Give these households the same symbol. Next, identify which animals are in a moderate condition, marking them on the map using a different symbol. Finally, show the animals which are in the worst condition.
Please note: You may wish to start the discussion with the worst animal and move up to the animals in moderate and best condition.
If households have more than one working animal, rank all animals within the household.
Step 4
While participants are deciding which animals are in a moderate or poor state, ask them about how they are making their decisions. What criteria are they using in their discussions? These may include the behaviour of their owners in caring for their animals, the facilities or resources being provided to animals, and observations relating to the animals themselves, such as wounds, injuries, or body condition.
Step 5
Using symbols, list the criteria participants used to categorize the welfare status of working animals and place symbols next to the animal or household. For example, if an animal is in poor condition due to beating, poor quality of feed and inadequate shade or shelter, put symbols for each of these next to the household.
Ask participants if there is anything else that they would like to show on the map that they think is important to any aspect of their lives or livelihoods.
Step 6
If the map was drawn on the ground, document it by either transferring it to a piece of paper or take a photo (indicating which direction is north). A copy should be left with the community. Record the community’s analysis and responses in your project action tracker and follow up with the community later if/when you start action planning together.
Facilitation Notes
Mapping on the ground is easiest and allows for everyone can walk around it to see the map from different angles. This also allows a large crowd to view the map and contribute to it.
Consider asking men and women to draw the maps separately. Different participants may draw different maps of the same area and that is ok. It reflects their different views of the community and of the topic discussed. As well, have the two separate maps will validate the results and highlight aspects that are important for men and women.
Remember that you are not controlling the map. Give confidence to people by asking participants to draw the map and gradually take over the entire process themselves.
Intervene only when it is necessary to involve people who are left out. Encourage those who are not participating.
Maps can show how things looked in the past, how they look now and what people would like their community to look like in the future. Maps can also be drawn before and after an intervention to compare changes to human and animal welfare, available and accessible resources and services and disease patterns.
Next Steps
Mapping in the rapport building stage might follow on with one of the following activities:
T5 Gender Roles and Responsibilities to understand men’s and women’s animal care-giving and use roles and responsibilities, and identify whether they desire changes in the division of labour
T7 Historical Timeline to learn which major past events community members perceive to be significant to working animals and people
The maps produced in the initiation phase might be referred back to during a both mid-term (monitoring) and final evaluations during to illustrate changes and improvements to working animal resources and services.
Discuss the map while doing a T22 Animal Welfare Transect Walk later on to see if it represented the ground reality of the animal welfare situation
T1c: Mapping Animal Diseases
A disease map is a visual representation of disease patterns of animals within the community. Using this tool will begin to focus both you and the community on the human and animal welfare problems and issues related to disease that may need further investigation.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To identify major disease outbreaks for both animals and humans and possible linkages. • To understand disease route transmission and how outbreaks are handled. • To identify opportunities to prevent future outbreaks from spreading.
2 hours per map
Materials needed:
Materials needed: Chart paper, note cards, markers or other locally available resources, like sticks, stones, straw, beans, seeds, coloured powders or saw dust, etc.
Keyword Search Tags
Project Phase: Initiation Phase
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach, Community Engagement Approach
Behavioural Drivers (COM-B): Behaviour Change Diagnosis and Planning
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools, Needs Assessment
Specific Topics: Animal Health and Services; Vulnerability and Resilience
Disease map (both humans & animals)
A disease map shows the animals and humans affected by disease. It may be used for both present and past disease problems in the village. This map may identify similarities between good and poor human and animal health and disease. Showing diseases on a map encourages analysis and further discussion of their symptoms, causes and routes or patterns of infection, as well as their effects on people, animals, owners and the community. The discussion can explore people’s concerns about their health, the health of their working animals and the things that they would like to change.
Figure T1C Animal disease map for influenza
The map above (figure T1C) was made by a community in a village where there was an epidemic of influenza. First the participants mapped their households and indicated where the animals were located. Then they showed which people and animals were affected by influenza and when, also indicating which people and animals had died. Using the dates of illness, the group mapped the source and route of transmission of influenza using arrows. Based on this, the owners developed an action plan for treatment of affected people and animals and prevention of further disease transmission.
Disease Map
Step 1
Start by explaining the purpose of the exercise and ask participants to draw an outline of their community on the ground or a large piece of chart paper using local materials, including: • General infrastructure, such as roads and paths, water points, community feed storage • Households in the community, including details of each household’s family members • Important, well-known places, such as clinic, school, temple/mosque, and meeting places
Ask participants to indicate households that have working animals. Show the types and numbers of animals using symbols or local materials. Add details such as whether the animals are male or female (e.g. blue for males, red for females) and the kinds of work they do.
Step 3
Ask participants if there are any people or animals suffering from sickness or disease right now, at this moment. Encourage them to show all the sick people and animals on the map, using a different symbol for each disease.
Step 4
Ask participants to show past cases of human and animal disease belonging to each household. Ask participants if there is anything else that they would like to show on the map which they think is important to any aspect of their life or livelihood.
Step 5
Encourage the group to analyse and discuss what is shown on the map. Consider using the following guiding questions: • What are the reasons for the diseases? • When did the diseases occur (seasonal, or related to work patterns?) • How are the diseases recognized? • What are the possible sources of infection and/or contamination? • How are they spread? (If known) • Where do they go for treatment or who do they go to? • What are the implications of working animals’ disease on their livelihoods and wellbeing? • What are the implications of human health issues on their working animals’ welfare?
Step 6
If the map was drawn on the ground, document it by either transferring it to a piece of paper or take a photo (indicating which direction is north). A copy should be left with the community. Record the community’s analysis and responses in your project action tracker and follow up with the community later if/when you start action planning together.
Facilitator’s Notes
Mapping on the ground is easiest and allows for everyone can walk around it to see the map from different angles. In this way, a large crowd to view the map and contribute to it.
Consider asking men and women to draw the maps separately. Different participants may draw different maps of the same area and that is ok. It reflects their different views of the community and of the topic discussed. As well, have the two separate maps will validate the results and highlight aspects that are important for men and women.
Remember that you are not controlling the map. Give confidence to people by asking participants to draw the map and gradually take over the entire process themselves.
Intervene only when it is necessary to involve people who are left out. Encourage those who are not participating.
Maps can show how things looked in the past, how they look now and what people would like their community to look like in the future. Maps can also be drawn before and after an intervention to compare changes to disease patterns.
Next steps
Mapping in the rapport stage might follow on with one of the following activities
T5 Gender Roles and Responsibilities to understand men’s and women’s animal care-giving and use roles and responsibilities, and identify whether they desire changes in the division of labour
T6Seasonal Calendar to identify periods of scarcity and risk for the community
T7 Historical Timeline to learn which major past events community members perceive to be significant to working animals and people
The maps produced in the concept stage might be referred back to during a both mid-term (monitoring) and final evaluations during to illustrate changes and improvements to working animal resources and services.
Animals and humans have a long-intertwined histories. The “domestication and socialization of animals” is described as “an interactive process of cooperation and coevolution based on a shared need for shelter, food and protection [8]. This interdependent relationship is sometimes described as human-animal interaction or human-animal bond depending on the species of the animal and the key role/function they play in people’s lives e.g. supporting livelihoods, companion or service animal, farm animal, etc.
Just like humans, animals are sentient beings with feelings and welfare needs that need to be met. The nature of the interdependent relationship and associated human-animal bond shapes and determines how humans treat their animals and how animals experience their surroundings. Thus, animals’ welfare depends on their owners, carers, and users and the animal-human bond and interactions between them, and their compassionate handling, management, and use. The stronger the animal-human bond, the more animal owners or carers are likely to invest in positive animal welfare practices, for example when animals are considered family members [9].
Exploring the following key points can support people in understanding the importance of investing in their animals’ welfare and help increase their motivation to take action to improve it:
The role animals play in people’s lives and associated benefits people experience because of their animals, and how adopting improved animal husbandry and management practices can create mutual benefits for both humans and animals.
People’s beliefs and understanding about their animals’ as sentient beings, including their feelings and needs.
Understanding animal welfare in terms of the five animal welfare domains.
How people’s attitude and behaviours influences their animals’ welfare including their handling and husbandry practices.
The following sections focus on understanding animal welfare in terms of the nature of the human-animal relationship vis-à-vis the roles that humans and animals’ play in each other’s lives.
1.1 Understanding the Importance of Animals to People
People derive benefits from their animals depending on the role that animals play in their lives, whether it be by making peoples’ lives easier by relieving their physical labour burdens, supporting livelihoods, or through contributing to people’s emotional wellbeing as companions.
It is therefore our responsibility to ensure animals live a life worth living rather than just survive.
Understanding how individuals, households, and communities’ benefit from animals is important to effectively framing communications to help motivate people to take action to improve the welfare of their animals.
The following section outlines animals’ potential benefits to people in terms of livelihood assets and well-being which you may identify through discussion and observations with communities you work with.
Figure 15: (from left to right) Illustrating how ensuring working and production animals’ welfare helps support people in meeting their livelihood needs, including firewood collection, transport of goods for people and animals, and income generation helpful to paying school fees.
Financial Capital: Animals may improve people’s opportunities for income generation, wealth accumulation, and related improvements in material living standards. Animals engage in many types of income generating activities which support people’s livelihoods and working animals may contribute to savings from hiring labour or transport. Animals may also be purchased as an investment, used to facilitate access to credit as a guarantee against a loan, and/or serve as a safety net for unexpected expenses.
Social Capital: Animals contribute to strengthening social networks and building trust and reciprocity. For example, people may lend their animals to others in need (e.g. free transport services, helping plough fields, supporting ceremonial activities), which may later see a return of support to animals’ owners in their times of need. This mutual support can contribute to enhanced resilience through strengthened social networks, and enhanced trust and reciprocity. Working animals can help women or other disadvantaged groups to carry out social responsibilities, which may increase their level of respect and status within their community. Alternatively, animal ownership, care or use can be linked to social stigmas (e.g. low socio-economic status, uncleanliness). Such stigmas can negatively affect people’s attitudes and beliefs about themselves and their animals, which can further affect how they treat their animals. It is therefore important to understand the nature of people’s relationship with their animals and related attitudes and beliefs which may be motivating or hindering them from taking action to improve the welfare of their animals.
Human Capital: animals support people’s health, attainment of skills and knowledge, and ability to work. For example, animals can act as transport providing access to healthcare services schools, and markets. They can also provide sources of nutrition’s either directly through meat and dairy products, or through farming inputs, which can promote good health. In this way, animals can support people’s attainment of knowledge and skills, as well as free up time and energy by reducing physical work burden which in turn may increase the availability of time and labour for investing in other pursuits.
Physical Capital: working animals can be a vital transport asset for goods and people, as well as provide essential sources of draught power which support agricultural production and other industries value chains’ (construction, infrastructure), which can be critical to supporting people’s livelihoods.
Natural Capital: animals themselves are natural resources natural resources from which further resources and services can be developed to support people’s livelihoods. Working animals can be also an important asset for enhancing access to natural resources such as fuel and firewood, food, feed, and water, as well through supporting agricultural inputs and outputs. Animal owners and users may also benefit from access to communal lands, water, and forest resources, or alternatively experience increased conflict over resources as a result their animal keeping.
Reducing Vulnerability: working animals and livestock can be valuable assets which contribute to communities’ resilience to natural shocks and disasters. For example, donkeys help transport water long distances to drought affected areas, help families move when natural disasters strike, and support pastoralist communities during migration.
Figure 16: Donkey’s supporting migration of Pastoralist communities in Turkana
Psychological, emotional, and spiritual well-being: animals can contribute for humans “well-being, connectedness, and resilience”, particularly in the case of domestic pets, companion animals, and service animals, by providing pleasure, relaxation, affection, loyalty, joy, and comfort [8]. In addition, animals can play a role in providing people with a sense of security through their contributions to income and food production, thereby reducing people’s exposure to unexpected shocks, and their ability to withstand shocks they may encounter. Leisure activities involving animals can also contribute to people’s sense of joy, freedom, and/or personal achievement (e.g. horseback riding, animal agility or show competitions).
Cultural and Spiritual Significance: Animals have had important cultural and spiritual significance attached to them throughout human history and are often well treated when they hold significance in cultural and religious teachings or practices [8]. Perceived cultural benefits may be derived when animals are used during cultural ceremonies like celebrations, memorials, and/or important sporting events. People may also derive cultural benefits if there is a significant cultural or group identity attached to being an animal owning community, for example cattle pastoralists’ sense of identity can be strongly linked with their keeping of animals or size of herd. In addition, understanding how animal species are depicted and characterized within cultural stories, literature, and within day-to-day sayings, as well people’s cultural values and beliefs about their animals and their identity, can provide useful insights into what drives people’s behaviours, and how to effectively communicate to motivate the adoption of improved animal welfare practices.
Figure 17: Horses supporting cultural and social activities in Ethiopia.
Horses supporting cultural and social activities in India.
Case Study Improving Animal Welfare Benefits People
In the Helwan region near Cairo, a huge collection of brick kilns produces 200 million red bricks every month in 2010, relying on over 1500 donkeys and 324 mules to pull brick carts.
Brick kiln donkeys have many welfare problems, including dehydration, poor body condition, foot problems and wounds from saddles and from beating. Due to the harsh conditions in which they live and work, their mortality rate is high, and many donkeys die young.
The Brooke Hospital for Animals supported an equine welfare improvement project to address equid welfare issues in Brik Kilns and facilitated meetings and trainings with brick kiln and animal owners to build their capacity to provide for their working animals’ welfare. Monitoring results indicated the age of working animals in brick kilns was increasing over the course of the project. Factory owners recognized that the turnover of working animals had sharply decreased, and that workers’ animals seemed to be living longer and able to be more productive and generate more income. A factory owner cited this being the result of improved donkey feeding practices during the peak working season. Another brick kiln worker and owner of several donkeys explained that water was a problem in the peak season and causing his donkeys to suffer. His solution to this issue was moving the water source inside the stable to give the animals more opportunities to drink. He noted that his animals’ health seemed to improve and that they felt so happy.
Over the years these very small adjustments have made a real difference to the welfare of the donkeys, reducing mortality rates, and prolonging their lives at the brick kilns.
Source: Mohamed Hammad, Ahmed El Sharkawy and Amro Hassan, Brooke Egypt, January 2010
There are many ways in which animals create value in our lives; however, animals’ provision of benefits to people, or lack thereof, is not the sole justification for people to address animal welfare issues. Rather understanding these benefits when they exist, along with people’s attitudes and beliefs about their animals and their treatment, can inform how best to engage people to motivate them to improve their animals’ welfare. Animals’ intrinsic value as sentient beings is sufficient reason for people to promote positive animal welfare states; however, may still require changes in social norms and values to support increased compassion for animals.
1.2 How Animal's Welfare Depends on People
The welfare of animals varies depending on a complex range of factors influencing their lives, many of which are dependent or determined by humans. Unlike wild animals, domesticated animals depend on humans for their welfare, and may not have the freedom to express their natural behaviour and depend on people to meet their needs. Working and production animals often have a very restricted and unnatural life, deprived of their freedom of movement and ability to express natural behaviours. Regardless of animal species, people who choose to keep animals are ultimately responsible for their animals’ life experiences, as these animals are dependent on people for meeting their needs.
The figure below illustrates the variety of determinants influencing animal welfare. The central, middle circle represents the animal factors which influence animal welfare, whereas the second, third and fourth layers are examples of the determinants of welfare which are dependent on humans, highlighting how much a domesticated animal’s welfare depends on people and is beyond the control of the animal them self. In the second layer, you can see direct influences on animals’ welfare related to their immediate living and/or working conditions, such as housing, nutrition, workload, handling, disease prevention and treatment, all of which are dictated by people. This could be considered in line with the five domains of welfare discussed in previous sections.
Figure 18: Determinants of Animals' Welfare (Adapted from [10])
The third layer shows the factors which influence the animal’s living and working conditions and therefore determines their welfare indirectly. These are similarly human determinants and may include the knowledge and capacity of the people who interact with the animal, the services available (including animal health services), the resources available in the locality and, among those, the specific resources that owners choose to provide, depending on what they can afford. This layer also contains the belief systems and traditions of the people dealing with the animal, the influence of their peers and social network, their social status, and their income level.
The outer layer represents more general socio-economic and environmental factors which influence the third layer. These may include social structures, income opportunities or wages, droughts and floods, mobility patterns, urbanisation, fuel prices and changes in policies. Together the third and fourth level can be considered determinants of human behaviour related to people’s capability, opportunity, and motivation for ensuring their animals’ animal welfare. Within this diagram, the human factors, or determinants of animal welfare influence each other within each layer and between one layer and the next. To be successful in sustainably improving welfare, several determinants will likely need to be addressed at the same time amongst the people regularly interacting with the animal and the systems in which animals and people live and/or work. Some factors influencing animal welfare are within the owner’s control, such as whether they are beaten, or what time of day they are fed. However, many factors cannot be influenced by individual animal owners because they are part of a wider living and working system, or socio-economic system. Thus, for people to be able to meet the needs of their animals and improve their welfare, a holistic and systems-based approach is recommended to understand and address the variety of factors influencing the behaviours of animal owning communities.
It is also important to note that animals’ welfare needs are not static. Just as the human circumstance affects peoples’ needs and related ability to meet them, animals’ needs and feelings may similarly change with the changing circumstances of their owners, and in response to changing circumstances they experience over the course of each day, season, or lifetime. The points below highlight general circumstances in which an animal’s needs may change, and which may require the people they depend on to adapt their husbandry and management practices to enable them to continue to thrive and experience positive welfare states.
Changes in the local context/environment: Animals’ welfare needs change depending on the circumstances and context as well. Sometimes when the community environmental context or circumstances change (e.g. in times of crisis or emergency), animals’ roles can change which can further result in changes in animals’ needs and related welfare (e.g. equids during humanitarian crisis, or search and rescue dogs). Changes in animals’ roles can require changes in care and management practices to meet the resultant changing needs of animals.
Animals’ welfare needs change depending on their age during their lifetime: Just like people, animals experience mental and physical changes and challenges during their lifetime. The needs and feelings of animals are likely to change as they reach middle and older age. There are many reasons for this, such as changes in nutritional needs, working ability and the amount of rest or care needed by the animal and provided by their owner.
Animals’ welfare needs change when seasons change: Within a single year, people and their working animals will experience many changes and challenges according to the climate, workload, food availability, income and other livelihood and environmental factors. In different countries and regions there will be different seasons or times of change within a livelihood system in one year and these will affect the welfare of animals.
Animals’ welfare needs change during a single day: Within a single day, working animals will experience changes and challenges to their welfare. These will be influenced by their living, working and resting conditions and their health status. They will also depend on the opportunities to experience positive feelings that are provided by their environment and the people and other animals around them.
As circumstances affecting animals’ needs change, people’s animal husbandry and management practices may need to adjust to provide for their animals’ welfare and ensure their animals continue to experience positive welfare states to the extent feasible.
The five domains framework is helpful for understanding how animals’ positive life experiences can be improved even within the contextual constraints people may face which are out of their control, since it doesn’t seek to ensure the animal is free from all issues which may not be possible.
Small changes can make a big difference to an animal’s overall welfare, with each little bit is contributing to the mental state and small gains in the animals’ overall welfare.
Look after your animals and they will look after you.
Figure 19: Woman in India checking and cleaning her working horse’s hooves to promote hoof health and prevent lameness.
1.3 Linking Human Behaviours to Positive Animal Welfare States
People have control over the lives of animals, and determine when their animals eat, drink, sleep, what they can do, where they can go, and what other animals they can meet. People are responsible for their animals’ well-being because they choose to keep animals and derive benefits from them. It is therefore important to understand who is responsible for the animals’ welfare state, and what behaviour should be targeted to improve it, as well as whether they have adequate knowledge and skills and access to sufficient resources and services to change. However, it is also essential to see things from the animal’s point of view, so not only are we asking, ‘Is the owner providing inputs or resources,’ but also: ‘Is the animal really getting what they need?’
Think about the animals in the communities where you will work, and how they spend their day. What activities comprise their day, how much time are they being active or resting? Describe who the animals depend upon to stay in a good, healthy state? Who feeds them and gives them water? Who cleans the area where they are kept? What care do people who own the animals believe they need, and who is responsible for providing that care?
It is not usually practical or realistic to give an animal absolutely everything they need to keep them feeling good all the time, every day, every season, throughout their life. However, the more animal needs that can be met, and the better their feelings are understood, the better their welfare can be. Incremental improvements in management practices and access to resources and service and decreases in poor husbandry and management practices and use of poor-quality resources and services can make a difference to animal welfare. Some changes will make an immediate, short-term difference, while others will make a sustainable, long-term difference. All of them are valuable and small steps are better than no action at all.
As animals are fully contributing members of our communities that are sentient and can feel pain, fear, and stress as well as a wide range of positive emotions, an animal can have both good and bad experiences throughout their life. Animal owning communities can therefore proactively promote good overall welfare by preventing negative experiences and promoting positive experiences. Considering and providing for the animal’s needs and feelings as much as possible, using the five domains for reference, is also important to preventing welfare problems from developing. Preventing welfare problems before they happen tends to be easier than successfully treating them when they arise and is in the best interest of animals and communities who own them. “Without good care, animals can become sick, weak, unhappy, and unproductive. For example, a working animal in a poor welfare state cannot thrive and provide a family with income in the way that a fit and healthy animal does. In contrast, if welfare problems are prevented and the needs of animals are met, animals are more likely to be in good physical condition and have fewer episodes of disease or injury and are more likely to experience greater positive emotions and less negative emotional experiences.
While understanding what animals need is a useful first step when working with animal owning communities, this understanding needs to be linked to what communities can do to meet those needs to promote behavioural change for animal welfare improvement. To do this, you can use the five domains framework to craft a similar framework linking the human behaviours communities can undertake to promote positive welfare states. A general non-species-specific example is provided in the figure below.
Figure 20: Examples of human behaviour supporting the five domains
Mapping human behaviours within the five domains is recommended when working with communities as it helps to reframe the welfare issues into actionable human behaviours that promote positive welfare states and supports animal owners to identify alternative actions for improving their animals’ quality of life, even when external constraints may impede their ability to address some welfare issues (e.g. insufficient financial resources of access to animal related services).
In addition, animals and people being dependent on one another for their well-being, their well-being is also dependent on the health of the environment, and the frameworks of One Health and One Welfare can help us to understand the interconnectedness between the realms of the health and welfare of animals, people, and the environment.
This section introduces these frameworks and their utility in understanding and addressing the “inextricable and mutually reinforcing connections between problems” amongst these three realms [11]. The two different yet complimentary concepts of One Health and One Welfare were developed to help different disciplines work together to advance solutions to common threats to the interconnected health and well-being of humans, animals and their various environments which are mutually beneficial and ensure that improvements in any one realm are not achieved at the expense of another.
Figure 21: Visualizing the concept of One Health [12]
WHAT IS ONE HEALTH?
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines One Health as an approach to designing and implementing programmes, polices and legislation and research in which multiple sectors (human health, animal health and the environment) communicate and work together to achieve better public health outcomes.
The aim of the One Health approach according to the One Health Global Network is “to improve health and wellbeing through the prevention of risks and the mitigation of effects of crises that originate at the interface between humans, animals, and their various environments [13].”
Originating to better tackle zoonotic diseases (diseases that transfer between animals and humans), One Health has since evolved its focus beyond communicable disease to include any issue that affect health outcomes (e.g. urbanization, climate change, land use, demographic changes). Taking a One Health approach will therefore seek to understand and consider the inextricable links between human, animal, and environmental health and to achieve sustainable change and optimal health in any of these areas [12].
One Health Case Study
Building veterinary paraprofessional competencies through Animal Health Mentoring Framework
Across Africa and Asia large proportion of primary animal healthcare is delivered by veterinary paraprofessionals (VPPs). However, VPPs receive varying level of training and their profession is unregulated. Their training can range from 2 weeks to 2 years and is often lecture-based (which does not teach practical skills).
As a result, we see Paravets with low confidence and competence. This leads to poor handling, low clinical skills, inappropriate treatment choice (the inappropriate use of antimicrobials), spread of disease and incorrect diagnosis. This in turn contributes to Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) and poses a risk to the health of humans and animals alike, as well as a threat to the environment (contamination of water or soil).
Brooke has developed the Animal Health Mentoring Framework (AHMF) whereby trained mentors (usually an experienced vet or Paravets) accompany VPPs while they are attending to real life cases, providing support, and coaching as the work is carried out. This allows VPPs to develop practical skills and allows for assessment on gaps and to identify priority areas for improvement.
Improvements in VPP training and regulation are critical to OH. Well trained paraprofessional improves food safety, help reduce AMR and prevent diseases transferring from animals to humans (zoonosis). It is important to note that the AHMF applies to all species of livestock, not just equines, and as such can be easily adopted by other organizations.
Since 2013, the AHMF has been successfully used to mentor over 4,000 animal health professionals in India, Pakistan, Kenya, Senegal, Ethiopia, Afghanistan, and Nepal. As a result of the mentoring, 37% of practitioners moved from an unsatisfactory competency level to satisfactory within one year.
WHAT IS ONE WELFARE?
One Welfare is a complementary approach akin to One Health, with One Welfare similarly recognizing the interconnections between animal welfare, human wellbeing and the environment and seeks to promote multi (cross sectoral) collaborations to better optimize desired welfare/well-being benefits for animals, people, and the environment [12].
The difference in the two concepts is primarily related to their origins and fields of application, with historically One Health focused more on disease prevention and treatment within the human health sector. One welfare simply promotes a slightly broader, more all-encompassing understanding of welfare inclusive of the welfare of animals as well as people and the environment. However, as the World Health Organizations defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” One Health and One Welfare are in fact mutually inclusive given the inclusion of physical, mental, and social well-being in the definition of health. However, whereas One Health is a more established and evidenced approach in practice that is championed by leading international organizations, One Welfare is a newer concept whose practical applications for tackling the common threats to human, animal and environmental welfare are still being explored and evidenced.
3.2 Relevance of One Health and One Welfare to Working with Communities to Improve Animal Welfare
The advantage of using a One Health/One Welfare approach when working with communities to improve animal welfare, especially in communities where animal welfare may not be a priority issue considering human and environmental issues they may be facing, is that these approaches are more likely to result in solutions that create benefits that are of interest to all, which can generate greater buy-in and motivation to change amongst communities.
The OH/OW frameworks can help explore the inter-relationships between humans, animals, and the environment realms in the following three ways:
Understanding Causal Relationships between Realms: OH/OW frameworks can help to understand how the situation or issues affecting the health and well-being of any one realm may be causing the health and well-being issues in another realm (e.g. lack of regulation of glyphosate-based herbicide use in the agricultural sector negatively impacts the health of humans and animals) [14].
Understanding/Identifying Root Causes of Issues within and Between Realms: help to understand the relationships between human, animal and/or environmental health and wellbeing in terms of shared or interlinked root causes. This may be in terms of how root causes of issues impacting health and well-being within any one realm originate from one of the other realms, as well as how issues in human, animal and environmental health and wellbeing may share root causes e.g. lack of knowledge of antibiotics and understanding of antimicrobial resistance causes their misuse and overuse which make infections harder to treat and increases the spread of disease in humans and animals [15, 16].
Shared External Threats or Risks: they can help to understand potential threats or risks to health and welfare shared by humans, animals, and the environment e.g. climate change.
Prior to developing solutions to animal welfare issues, it is helpful to first consider potential linkages between the health and well-being of animals, people, and the environment in terms of the above, and seek multidisciplinary collaborations that can better inform this understanding and support implementation of solutions which can better optimize benefits for all whenever feasible.
One Welfare | Case Study 1 Brick Kilns
In South Asia building material for the growing megacities is produced in around 152,700 active brick kilns. These kilns employ over 16 million people and 500,000 animals, mainly horses, donkeys, and mules, and produce 86% of the world’s bricks.
Workers in the kilns must endure extreme heat, dusty and polluted air, tough terrains, long hours, and hard physical labour. Many of them are women and children. In the brick kilns we have surveyed, 60% of workers lived below the poverty line, 80% had no running water and 60% had no latrine facilities. Restricted access to healthcare results in high rates of self-medication or use of unqualified doctors. Mental health is affected with 80% workers in one kiln reporting lack of pride in their work and 60% feeling no control over their lives.
Equines carry heavy loads in extreme heat, with limited access to water, food, shade, and rest. Common health issues in animals working in the kilns are hoof problems (50%), wounds (30%), abnormal gait (52%) and fear of human interaction (30%). Brick kilns are a huge contributor to pollution across the continent. According to the World Bank, the brickmaking sector is responsible for up to 91% of total particulate matter emissions (solid airborne particles) in some South Asian cities.
It was with a One Health solution in mind that Brooke has formed a coalition of organisations dedicated to improving labour conditions, animal health and welfare, child labour, and quality of the natural environment in brick kilns across South Asia: the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the South Asia Initiative to End Violence Against Children (SAIEVAC), the Donkey Sanctuary, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), World Wildlife Fund (WWF), ActionAid Nepal, International Union For Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and Global Fairness Initiative.
One of the interventions led by a coalition partner is the ‘Green Bricks’ initiative, which is tackling harmful kiln emissions through the implementation of new ‘clean air’ technology. ICIMOD is working with the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) in South Asia to train brick entrepreneurs and raise awareness of new, increasingly cost effective and scalable, kiln technologies and improvements in the brick production process. One of these technologies, called zigzag, reduces coal consumption by 20% and produces up to 70% lower levels of pollution than the existing technology. Other interventions have included the introduction of human and animal first aid kits into kilns, health, and safety training, linking workers to social care and health care schemes.
One Welfare | Case Study 2 Equine welfare in the production of organic cocoa in Nicaragua
In the north side of Nicaragua, the grass-root organization ADDAC (Association for Diversification and Development of Agricultural Communities) leader in agro-ecological activities and located in Waslala, is implementing a local project to increase the access of 1,000 organic cocoa producers to fair trade markets.
This region is recognized since 1961 for its contribution of 50% of the national cocoa bean production, and almost 70% of organic cocoa production is concentrated in areas with deficient road access. The families that depend on this crop to meet their basic needs, traditionally rest on equines for key tasks of the stages of production, harvesting, primary transformation (fermented and dried) and commercialization of cocoa beans. Horses and mules participate in the preparation of the soil for sowing and fertilization, the transfer and transplantation of genetic varieties, irrigation, surveillance activities for the maintenance, health and rehabilitation of cocoa plantations, and forest regeneration. They also represent the unique means of transportation of the cocoa fruits to be transformed and placed for domestic consumption and export markets. Moreover, working equids provide raw material to produce organic fertilizer to contribute to good soil conditions for cocoa growth, and the use of animal traction, lessens the pressure on carbon emissions, which add to environmental sustainability.
Through the experience of ADDAC, in collaboration with Brooke, this organization was introduced for the first time to the Equine Welfare, and has reflected on the link between the three realms of welfare: from the perspective of cocoa producers´ wellbeing, by improving the welfare of their equids, they perceived benefits to household’s incomes since the transportation of the cocoa grains on time to crops collection centre, encourage engagement through negotiations among merchants, and families are able to cope their prioritized needs. Additionally, the dynamics of cocoa-producing families are influenced by their equines as they converge in negotiation or trade centres, fairs, and traditional events, where the bonds between people and community roots and attachment is strengthened.
These has also benefited equines since cocoa producer are more aware of equines needs and have adopted positive animal welfare practices such as: the use of proportionate loads, appropriate hooves’ care, better feeding, preventive veterinary care; the appropriate use of the equid´s services in the post-harvest activities, and the reduction of the loss of production caused by accidents suffered by working equids in poor condition. These practices have helped families to report savings of approximately $1,645 per household per year that can be invested in improvements of the quality of the cocoa production, equid welfare. In addition, cocoa qualifies for commercial certifications to acquire a better market price, which represents USD 0.45 more per sold kilogram.
In their accumulated experience, ADDAC express that they have reached a more comprehensive understanding of the agro-ecological approach under the One Welfare Umbrella, which extends beyond the use of agricultural technology for the restoration of the productive capacity of the soils, but refers to the demand of the farmer production model, involving aspects of community organization and participation, capacity for commercialization and rescue of values for the management of the environmental and animal welfare, since there is a relationship of coexistence and co-dependency.
“Animal welfare leads communities to explore the One Welfare and One Health approach, strengthening the conceptual and practical framework of work, and ADDAC to better understands the relationship between animal welfare, productivity, the environment and human development.”
Luis Rosales, Animal Welfare Technician, ADDAC
3.3 Key Considerations for Using a One Health or One Welfare Approach
Potential Benefits of Using OH/OW Approaches:
Promotes more holistic systems thinking which leads to more strategic and sustainable solutions. This can improve understanding and solutions for addressing root causes, exploring cause and effect relationships, or interdependencies that can have a spill over effect from one realm to another.
Can be a useful framework for tailoring communications in terms which speak to what stakeholders’ value and find relevant e.g. framing outreach messages to communities, donors, collaborators, or policy makers to ensure it speaks to their human or environment oriented interests rather being focused on animal welfare.
It can promote greater collaboration and interest in strategic partnerships by harnessing interest, expertise, and resources across sectors to address cross cutting issues resulting in greater efficiency in resource use and more sustainable solutions and benefits for all e.g. helps identify potential collaborators experienced in addressing human and environmental issues identified as root causes of animal welfare issues.
The One Health approach encourages a greater focus on prevention, which is justifiable due to being more cost effective, and can therefore be particularly appealing and make generating support amongst policy makers and leaders easier e.g. Using a OH approach can helps prevent pandemics like COVID 19 (Delia Grace, The business case of One Health – printed material.
Potential Limitations of Using OH/OW Approaches:
Designing every project as OH/OW project can limit the scope of issues addressed. While beneficial to utilize one health and one welfare frameworks when appropriate, projects should not feel beholden to using it, or require linkages to human or environmental health and welfare for every project. Animal welfare issues may not have linkages to human or environmental wellbeing, but that doesn’t make them any less important to address. It could potentially be more challenging to address them if communities or other stakeholders with whom you may wish to engage do not share the same animal welfare improvement priorities. In such cases, using the science of human behaviour change and best practices in participatory community engagement and development is recommended to inform project design and improve the effectiveness of implementation and attainment of desired results.
It can be challenging to collaborate and coordinate work across disciplines and different stakeholders e.g. identifying and establishing collaborations can be time consuming, there may be differences in ways of working or availability of resources that need to be resolved.
While these challenges should not be ignored, it is clear the potential benefits of collaborating in terms of the health and well-being of animals, people, and the environment, as well in terms shared resource investments in such projects, make them worthwhile when feasible.
A daily activity schedule is a chart showing how animal-owning families spend their time, including the time of day that each activity takes place and the time it takes to complete each one. This exercise identifies important times of the day, for example times when people are busy working, when they spend time with their working animals, or when they are free to discuss their common problems. This activity can be used to initiate a discussion about the best times to plan animal welfare activities, to hold a community meeting or for you (the facilitator) to visit the community. Step-by-step guidance for conducting this activity is provided in relation to daily activity schedules for both people and animals.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To understand which activities, take up the most and least time • To identify the best time to meet with individuals and community members and times when they are not available. • To identify who cares for the animals in each household and in what capacity. • To identify times when individuals are overburdened and why. • To identify potential opportunities for sharing or shifting workloads of men, women, and other family members to improve the well-being of people and animals.
1.5-2 hours
Materials needed:
Chart paper and markers or using sticks, stones, straw, local resources
Daily activity schedule of the animal-owning community
This chart (Figure T4A) explores and compares how animal owners, users and carers spend their work and leisure time. This exercise is a useful, non-threatening exercise that looks at real life experiences and helps people to understand the roles and responsibilities of different family members towards their animals. It can be used to analyse the factors that influence different people’s roles and activities, and to understand the problems and obstacles faced when dealing with animals.
Figure T4 Daily Activity Schedule of an animal-owning community
In this exercise (Figure T4a above), men, women and children listed all their activities between getting up at 5am and going to bed at 9pm.
Women start cleaning the animals’ shelter, preparing the morning meal and fetching water with the children between 5 and 7am.
Men and children pray between 5 and 7am.
Men take the animal out to work at 9am.
Women are involved in feeding, watering and cleaning up after animals several times a day, while men are involved with their animal only between 9am and 2pm and at 8pm for a final feed.
Children clean the animals’ shelter between 3 and 6pm.
Men are the main income generators and users of the animals, whilst women participate in alternative income generating activities at the market.
This initiated a discussion about the roles and responsibilities of family members in caring for the animals and how some responsibility might be shifted to men.
Daily Activity Schedule of the Animal-Owning Community
Step 1
Start by explaining the purpose of exercise to the participants and agree whose daily activities to chart first. This can be the animal owner/carer or members of the owner’s family. Agree whether to make a circular clock or a line chart to represent time. Decide whether to show time in hours or as parts of the day, such as morning, afternoon, and evening. The example above provides a numeric representation of time. Show daily activities using symbols placed at the appropriate time of day.
Step 2
Start a discussion about the activities that a person or a group of people normally do, from when they get up in the morning until they go to sleep. Ask participants to list the activities in ascending order from morning to night.
Key points might include:
• Free time and work time • Times when animals are fed, or the animal shelter is cleaned • When animals are taken for grazing • When animals are offered feed and water • When people groom or clean animals
Step 3
Ask when people have free time to take part in other activities, either individually or as a group. • How is other/spare time spent? Do they have spare time? • What are other income generating activities and how much time is spent on those? • What social activities should be included in the list?
Step 4
Once daily schedules are complete, discuss results with participants.
Consider these questions:
• How do participants feel about the way they use their time throughout the day? • Why are some people responsible for some tasks while others are responsible for others? • Which periods are busiest or most stressful? Why? • Which activities are most important for meeting the needs of the household? The animal? Why? • Are any activities felt to be very burdensome? Why? • Are there any ways in which some activities could be made easier?
If feasible, bring the two groups back together to discuss any differences in perceived division of daily activities of different people in the two charts.
Summarize the results of the activity and discussion and ask participants to reflect on what they learned through this activity.
Step 5
Once the activity is complete, take a photo or record of the chart on a piece of paper, ensuring the community has a copy for their records. A copy is retained by the facilitator for future reference or planning. Add any notes regarding when people are available (men, women, children, all) in your project action tracker.
Facilitator’s notes: Daily activity schedule – animal-owning community
Daily activity charts are best made by individuals and small groups, so divide up larger groups to make charts for different people, such as men, women and children.
Encourage men and women to create separate charts to enable comparison of perceptions of each other’s daily activities. This will help with identifying the best time to plan community visits with men, women and/or both.
Remember that you are not controlling the exercise. Give confidence to people so that they gradually take over the entire process themselves.
You might want to discuss how daily routines change depending on the time of the week or the season.
Next Steps
As part of rapport building stage in the initiation phase, the daily activity schedule might follow on with one of the following activities:
T1 Mapping to understand which resources and services are important to the community.
T5 Gender Roles and Responsibilities to understand men’s and women’s animal care-giving and use roles and responsibilities, and identify whether they desire changes in the division of labour.
T6 Seasonal Calendar to identify periods of scarcity and risk for the community.
T7 Historical Timeline to learn which major past events community members perceive to be significant to working animals and people
As part of a community needs assessment and shared vision, the daily activity schedule for the animal-owning community might accompany one or more of the following tools to get a full picture of community dynamics and needs for project planning:
T1 Mapping to understand which resources and services are important to the community.
T2 Mobility Map to understand where people spend most of their time and how long it takes to get places
T3 Venn Diagram (T3b Social Networking Venn Diagram) to identify key individuals, groups and actors perceived to be most important to people and their animals.
T5 Gender Roles and Responsibilities to understand men’s and women’s animal care-giving and use roles and responsibilities, and identify whether they desire changes in the division of labour.
The chart produced in this version of the daily activity schedule illustrates how working animals spend their time, during both work periods and rest periods. It looks at a daily routine from the animal’s point of view and identifies where improvements to welfare could be made, such as increasing the time available to animals for rest, play or grazing. The animal’s daily activity schedule differs from the community’s schedule as it looks in-depth at how only the animals’ time is spent during the day, rather than humans.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To understand animals’ daily activities and promote understanding of ways it supports meeting their needs in terms of the five domains of welfare • To identify opportunities for improving animal welfare through husbandry and management practices
1.5-2 hours
Materials needed:
Chart paper and markers or using sticks, stones, straw, local resources
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach, Community Engagement Approach
Behavioural Drivers (COM-B): Behaviour Change Diagnosis and Planning, Capability
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools, Needs Assessment
Specific Topics: Animal Husbandry and Management; Animal Welfare, Feelings and Needs
Daily activity schedule of the animal
Figure T4B Daily activity schedule of the working animal
This daily activity schedule for animals (Figure T4B, above) was used to initiate a discussion on animal welfare issues amongst rural workers, who use their equine animals to generate income by transporting goods and people to markets and tourist places. The animals’ day starts with their feeding trough being cleaned at 6am, followed by being fed at 6am. The animals are harnessed to carts at 8am and start their work at the market at 8:30am. Water is offered between 11:30am and midday, and again at 5pm when the animals return home. A second feeding is offered after finishing work 6pm From 7 to 8pm animals are provided free time to graze and roll. They are groomed between 8 and 9pm and the last feed is given between 9 and 10pm.
Daily Activity Schedule of the Animal
Step 1
Start by explaining the purpose of exercise and agree whether to make a circular clock or a line chart to represent time. Decide whether to show time in hours or as parts of the day, such as morning, afternoon, and evening.
Step 2
Start a discussion about the activities that animals are involved in from morning to night. Ask them to list all the activities in order, both with them and other users. Show daily activities using symbols placed at the appropriate time of day.
Step 3
Encourage participants to include some of the following activities in the animals’ daily activity schedule: • Resting and working time • When animals are taken for grazing • When animals are offered feed and water • When animals are groomed or cleaned • When animals can socialise with other animals • When animals can perform instinctive behaviours (e.g. rolling around)
Step 4
Once the animals’ activity schedule is complete, discuss results with participants.
Consider the following guiding questions:
• What do participants think their animals feel about the activities they do throughout the day? • When do you think animals feel most hungry/thirsty? • Do animals have time to satisfy and engage in natural behaviours? (In natural environment or with other animals e.g. rolling, grazing/roaming, socializing) • Which activities are most important for meeting the animals’ needs? Why? • Which periods are considered as heavy workload or strenuous? • Are there some activities that could be made easier/less strenuous for the animal?
Summarize the results of the activity and discussion and ask participants to reflect on what they learned through this activity.
Step 5
Once the activity is complete, take a photo or record of the chart on a piece of paper, ensuring the community has a copy for their records. A copy is retained by the facilitator for future reference or planning. Add any important notes to your project action tracker.
Facilitator’s notes: Daily activity schedule – animal-owning community
Animals at one place of work may have different work types, so divide groups by animals’ work type to produce the daily activity schedules.
Encourage men and women to create separate charts to enable comparison of perceptions of each other’s daily activities. This will help with identifying the best time to plan community visits with men, women and/or both.
Remember that you are not controlling the exercise. Give confidence to people so that they gradually take over the entire process themselves.
You might want to discuss how daily routines change depending on the time of the week or the season.
Next Steps
As part of rapport building stage in the initiation phase, the daily activity schedule might follow on with one of the following activities:
T1 Mapping to understand which resources and services are important to the community.
T5 Gender Roles and Responsibilities to understand men’s and women’s animal care-giving and use roles and responsibilities, and identify whether they desire changes in the division of labour.
T6 Seasonal Calendar to identify periods of scarcity and risk for the community.
T7 Historical Timeline to learn which major past events community members perceive to be significant to working animals and people
As part of a community needs assessment and shared vision, the daily activity schedule for the animal-owning community might accompany one or more of the following tools to get a full picture of community dynamics and needs for project planning:
T1 Mapping to understand which resources and services are important to the community.
T2 Mobility Map to understand where people spend most of their time and how long it takes to get places
T3 Venn Diagram (T3b Social Networking Venn Diagram) to identify key individuals, groups and actors perceived to be most important to people and their animals.
T5 Gender Roles and Responsibilities to understand men’s and women’s animal care-giving and use roles and responsibilities, and identify whether they desire changes in the division of labour.
A seasonal calendar is used to plot changes over the annual cycle. This tool provides a visual representation of seasonally varying phenomenon, such as production activities, illness and disease, migration patterns and much more [48]. This is a useful exercise to carry out with a community as part of a needs assessment and shared vision, which identifies mitigating action. This tool enables people to analyse changes across seasons in the lives of animals as well as their owners, users and/or carers, as well as how these changes may be linked to each other.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To identify periods of availability and scarcity (water, food, income) to target programme activities • To identify periods of lowest and highest risk (disease, poor health, poor body condition) to target programme activities • To identify potential linkages or causal factors related to the livelihoods of animals’ owners, users and carers
1.5 - 2 hours
Materials needed:
Chart paper and markers or sticks, stones, straw, leaves, beans, seeds, pulses, coloured sand or chalk powder and/or any other locally available materials to represent each aspect in the chart
Keyword Search Tags
Project Phase: Initiation Phase
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach, Community Engagement Approach
Behavioural Drivers (COM-B): Opportunity
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools, Needs Assessment
Specific Topics: Animal Health and Services; Livelihoods; Vulnerability/Resilience, Animal Welfare, Feelings, and Needs
Seasonal calendar of the lives of animals, their owners, users and carers
The seasonal calendar can include many aspects of life. For example, it may highlight changes in animal welfare according to seasonal variations in workloads or availability of feed, which may also be associated with changes in household income and/or expenditure. It can help the community to decide actions to improve animal welfare and plan ahead to prevent welfare from getting worse in difficult seasons, as well plan alternative livelihood strategies for times when their working animals will not be required, required less or for different purposes. Each important aspect is identified and defined by the community.
Different criteria is agreed by the community to illustrate seasonal variations in:
festivals, religious ceremonies, important local events
household income
household expenditures
consumption of animal feed and fodder, grazing or other resources
seasonal prevalence or incidence of animal diseases
general health status of people in animal-owning households
the general body condition or welfare status of animals
availability of water and/or other important natural resources
availability of work or employment and other livelihood related activities
work load of animals and humans e.g. periods of heavy work or periods of relative ease
migration patterns of animal-owning families
Figure T6 Seasonal calendar created by a group of animal owners in Thies, Senegal
The example above was conducted with a community, whose livelihoods depend on animals, especially during periods of agricultural harvest. Men and women primarily rely on animals to support their livelihoods, but have additional sources of income throughout the year. From this calendar, we come to understand:
There are four seasons: Winter/Rainy or Monsoon season, Autumn/Harvest time, Spring/Dry Season, and Summer/Lean Season (1st row)
Two major festivals take place (2nd row) in December and January/February
Water (4th row), harvesting (3rd row) and fodder availability (5th row) are extremely low or non-existent during the dry season (Aug-Sept) and highest during the rainy season (Oct-Dec).
Animal-related (7th row) and non-animal related (8th row) income varies between men and women, with women bringing in more non-animal-related income (8th row) throughout the year and men bringing in more animal-related income (7th row) generally.
Both income (7th & 8th rows) and household expenditure (9th row) go up during festival months.
There appears to be a relationship between animal body condition (10th row), availability of feed/fodder (5th row) and disease prevalence in animals (9th row):
Animal body condition is worse and disease prevalence (9th row) higher during summer season (Jun - July), when there is low water availability, no fodder.
Human health is also worse during the winter months (July-Sept). The issue of diseases (11th row), discussions focused on the most disease prone periods. For more details, during this exercise the communities indicated that from July to January, there is usually an outbreak of seasonal diseases like Malaria, during the rainy season (July-August-September), and; seasonal flu from October to January. Communities indicated that the fatigue accumulated during the harvesting season (3rd row) and water availability (4th row) are some of the aggravating factors.
As far as expenses (9th row) are concerned, there are fewer expenses related to household care just after the harvests. In fact, during this period consumption is mainly derived from the harvest, and expenditure concerns other aspects such as education and health. Sometime afterwards, expenditure increases due to the reduction in food stocks and the need to prepare for the next season (seeds, inputs, etc.). Taking care of the animals during this period also requires expenditure due to the scarcity of grasses.
Seasonal Calendar of the Lives of Animals and Communities
Step 1
a) Start a discussion by asking participants about the local calendar and seasonal landmarks, for example dry or rainy seasons, before or after festival periods or religious ceremonies. b) Ask the helper to draw a matrix on the ground or large piece of chart paper and list the identified seasons on the horizontal (top) axis including the months in which they fall. c) On the first line of the vertical axis, add the identified seasonal landmarks (1a). Instead of words, the group may identify unique characteristics of each season and depict these using a symbol or drawing.
Step 2
a) Move on to a discussion about the present season and their main work during this season. Add the work to the vertical axis. Then ask about: b) Other work during the year c) Income generated from the main work d) Income generated from the other work e) general house expenditures throughout the year f) Big issues related to animals and humans, such as: • Animal illness/disease • Human illness/disease • Availability of water/feed/fodder, etc.
Step 3
Decide with the group how they will display the situation. Encourage participants depict seasonal changes using locally available materials. You may also use symbols or simply write words on cards.
For example:
• Higher income levels can be shown by placing a lot of seeds/money on the month in which this occurs, while a decrease in income the next month is shown with just a few seeds. - Figure T6 used dots, or you can use dollar signs ($) for income, whereby five dots or $$$$$ = high income and a single dot or $ = low income (Rows 7, 8, 9)
• On the same note, you can use the dots to represent abundance or scarcity. Abundance can be represented by 5 dots whereas a single 1 dot represents scarcity; and those in between can show relative references to abundance or scarcity. - Figure T6 used 5 dots for periods of high-water availability, 3 dots for average water availability and 1 dot for periods of water scarcity (Row 4).
• You can also use by shading Dark colours to represent periods of abundance and light colours periods of scarcity.
Step 4
Explore the relationships between different seasonal events, activities and problems for animals and humans, especially those that show changes at the same time. The availability of resources either in the form of fodder or water availability or income or spending shows you what kind of physical opportunities are available to create an enabling environment for people to change their behaviour towards their animal’s welfare.
Also discuss any similarities between the well-being of animals and humans throughout the seasons. Once the calendar is complete, discuss the results of the activity with the group.
Step 5
Record the community’s analysis and responses in your project action tracker. Leave the seasonal calendar with the community and take a copy/picture for your records. Follow up with the community later when you start action planning together.
Facilitation Notes
In exceptional cases, where there are more than 20 people in the group, consider dividing participants into smaller groups to compare the seasonal changes amongst different groups of people. Encourage people to arrange themselves into the smaller groups with those they feel share greatest similarities (e.g. men / women, owners / users).
It may be helpful to have more than one facilitator to support/facilitate small group work and discussions, especially if there are many participants.
Before starting this exercise, discuss the calendar focus areas (which specific aspects will be examined) and how it will be used to analyse how the welfare of working animals and their related livelihoods and well-being change in different seasons. Also, how certain changes may be linked or cause challenges in their capacity to care for their animals.
Be clear that the aim of the activity is to discuss how seasonality affects animal welfare and people’s livelihoods and identify challenging seasons. In this way, participants’ expectations can best be managed, and potential frustrations or perceptions that facilitators are more interested in animals’ well-being than people, can be mitigated. This is particularly important given that some changes in livelihoods and well-being may be identified, but it may be beyond the capacity of the project to address them.
New facilitators might look into historical weather and food security reports (FEWS NET) to gain an understanding of seasonal challenges that the community might be facing before meeting with the group, which will help with identifying dry/lean, rainy/fruitful seasons and historical water shortages.
Next Steps
Seasonal calendars during the rapport building stage might accompany or be created alongside one or more of the following tools:
T3 Venn Diagram (T3a Resources and Services Venn Diagram) to understand identify animal-related resource and service providers animal-owning communities rely on most and their level of satisfaction with each one
T4 Daily Activity Schedule to understand how people and animals in animal-owning communities spend their time
This PLA tool can support identification of community priorities related to a variety of topics, and you are encouraged to adapt the tool as needed to address topics relevant to your project.
Step-by-step guidance for conducting this activity is provided related to the following three topics:
T8a: Pairwise Ranking and Scoring of Animal Welfare Issues
T8b: Pairwise Ranking and Scoring of Animal Health Service Providers
T8c: Pairwise Ranking and Scoring of Animal Diseases
T8a: Pairwise Ranking and Scoring of Animal Welfare Issues
This tool uses a matrix to make direct comparisons between issues, such as beating, over-loading, poor feeding practices, etc. It is used to prioritize welfare issues for taking action, which can be a useful next step after participatory welfare needs assessment (See T22 Animal Welfare Transect Walk) has been carried out. This tool is similar to T9 Matrix Ranking and Scoringin that it prioritizes issues important to communities, however does so in a quicker and simpler way, without explicitly including criteria participants use when prioritizing issues. However, reasons for particular preferences can still emerge during discussions as participants decide on their priorities. As such, this tool may be used instead of, or before a more in-depth matrix ranking and scoring activity.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To support animal owning communities in identifying the animal welfare issues they feel are the biggest priorities to address
1.5-2 hours
Materials needed:
Coloured powder, chalk, stick, tree leaves, coloured cards; chart paper and markets, or other locally available materials to represent identified criteria.
Keyword Search Tags
Project Phase: Planning Phase
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach, Community Engagement Approach
Specific Topics: Animal Welfare, Feelings, and Needs
Pair-wise ranking and scoring of animal welfare issues
T8A Pairwise ranking and scoring of animal welfare issues in Faisalabad, Pakistan
A group of animal owners in a Brick kiln community in Faisalabad, Pakistan, ranked animal welfare issues identified in their locality according to the level of prioritization. The identified lack of available shade/shelter, inadequate provision of water, inadequate provision of mixed feed, overloading, beating and lack of timely treatment. Inadequate provision of water (score 5) and inadequate provision of mixed feed (score 4) were seen as the first and second important animal welfare issues, respectively. Participants agreed to discuss ways to address these priority issues in their next group meeting.
Pair-wise ranking and scoring of animal welfare issues
Step 1
Start by explaining the purpose of the exercise.
Ask one or two community helpers to create a matrix on the ground or chart paper. Have a minimum of six (6) rows and columns, with room to add more should the community identify more than five animal welfare issues. Have one of the community helpers draw a line from the top left diagonal corner to the bottom right diagonal corner. Cross out the boxes below the diagonal line to avoid duplication.
At the same time, ask the community to identify animal welfare issues that are common in the area. Have another community helper record them on cards. Use representative names, symbols, abbreviations, or locally available materials to depict the issues, such as different tree leaves. Make two sets of symbols for each identified issue. Place one set of names/symbols in the first column, from top to bottom. Then place the second set of names/symbols in the top row, from left to right.
Please note: It is the facilitator’s job to help the community reduce the number of animal welfare issues to a maximum of six to eight (6-8) that are most common to the community should they come up with a long list.
Please note: Ensure that you have multiple copies of the symbols to prepare for the prioritisation.
Step 2
One by one, compare each name/symbol in the columns with each symbol in the rows. Encourage participants to discuss which animal welfare issues they would prioritise over the other and ask why. Have the community members place the preferred name/symbol in the relevant box in the matrix.
Please note: Coming to an agreement on the priority animal welfare issues may cause some debate amongst participants. These discussions are important as they generate understanding of the rationale underlying participant’s prioritisation of issues. As a facilitator, allow and encourage this discussion without inserting your ideas. Ask the community helper to record the reasons for their prioritisation.
Step 3
Count the number of times each option appears in the matrix. Add them up and record totals at the bottom of the matrix using seeds, pebbles, or numbers (scoring). Then make a list of the options with the most prioritised animal welfare issue ranked first.
Once complete, consider using the following questions to generate a discussion about the results:
• Does everyone agree on the prioritised issues? • What is the impact of the prioritised issues on animal-owning households? (e.g. livelihoods) • What can be done to improve the prioritised animal welfare issues? • Who needs to do what? • What opportunities exist for participants to address the priority animal welfare issues and/or improve their current animal husbandry and management practices?
Step 4
Summarize the results of the activity and have the community helper add any actions and activities to the community action plan. Agree on a date and time for the next session.
The matrix should be left with the community. Make a copy or take a photograph for your reference for future discussions and further action planning. Add a copy to your project action tracker.
Facilitator’s notes: Pair-wise ranking & scoring of animal welfare issues
If the number of items to be compared is too large, this exercise can become boring for participants. In this case, help participants to reduce the list by focusing on a smaller number of prioritised items.
Make sure the animal welfare issues are very clear and precise. For example, if the community identifies water, clarify whether the issue of water is about water provision, water access/availability, water distance, etc.
The discussions that people have about why they choose one option over another are just as important as the result. It is important to allow these discussions to happen. Take notes on the criteria participants use to decide on their priorities.
Some diseases and conditions may be identified as a major animal welfare issue in the community, such as colic. These may also be included in the issues list.
This activity might identify potential influencers. Consider involving them in to future sessions to help strengthen the identified opportunities for change.
Next steps
Use understandings gained about what motivates animal-owning communities to inform the design of projects and/or strategies
Priority issues agreed by the group for further exploration and/or action may be revisited during community action planning and included in relevant sections of the community action plan (e.g. issues and action sections)
T26 Animal Welfare Cause and Effect Analysis to identify and promote understanding of the root causes of priority animal welfare issues and related implications for people and animals
T8b: Pairwise Ranking and Scoring of Animal Health Service Providers
This tool uses a matrix to make direct comparisons between animal diseases common to a community. It is used to prioritize animal diseases to address, which can be a useful next step after participatory welfare needs assessment (See T22 Animal Welfare Transect Walk) has been carried out. This tool is similar toT9 Matrix Ranking and Scoringin that it prioritizes diseases important to communities, however does so in a quicker and simpler way, without explicitly including criteria participants use when prioritizing issues. However, reasons for particular preferences can still emerge during discussions as participants decide on their priorities. As such, this tool may be used instead of, or before a more in-depth matrix ranking and scoring activity.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To support animal owning communities in identifying and prioritizing animal diseases to address.
2 hours
Materials needed:
Coloured powder, chalk, stick, tree leaves, coloured cards; chart paper and markets, or other locally available materials to represent identified criteria
The matrix below compares common diseases in working animals and identifies which of them are perceived to be the biggest problem by the community. This activity helps people to understand the common diseases in their community and local area and can be used to inform the T26 Animal Welfare Cause and Effect Analysis.
T8B Pairwise scoring and ranking of animal diseases
A group of animal owners identified, compared and ranked six diseases, using tree leaves as symbols for respiratory problems, surra (trypanosomiasis – biting flies), worm infestation, ectoparasites, wounds and tetanus. This showed that tetanus was seen by the group to be the biggest welfare problem, followed by surra. Though worm infestation was initially identified as one of the most important diseases, it was found to be less important than other diseases during pair-wise comparisons. This tool was used to inform action planning and followed up with a T15 Cost-Benefit Analysis. The community decided to take up community-led vaccination of their animals against tetanus.
Pair-wise ranking and scoring of animal diseases
Step 1
Start by explaining that the purpose of the exercise.
Ask one or two community helpers to create a matrix on the ground using coloured powder, chalk, or a stick or on chart paper using markers. Have a minimum of six (6) rows and columns, with room to add more should the community identify more than five diseases. Have one of the community helpers draw a line from the top left diagonal corner to the bottom right diagonal corner. Cross out the boxes below the diagonal line to avoid duplication (see Figure T8b).
At the same time, start by asking the community to identify diseases that are commonly found in the area. Have another community helper record them on cards. Use representative names, symbols, abbreviations, or locally available materials to depict the diseases, such as different tree leaves. Make two sets of symbols for each identified disease. Place one set of names/symbols in the first column, from top to bottom. Then place the second set of names/symbols in the top row, from left to right.
Please note: Depending on the context, the participants may call refer to the diseases by local names and identify them by sign, symptom, effect and/or seasonality. The facilitator should have a good basic knowledge of diseases in the area to identify them.
Please note: It is the facilitator’s job to help the community reduce the number of diseases to a maximum of eight (8) should they come up with a long list.
Step 2
One by one, compare each name/symbol in the columns with each symbol in the rows. Encourage participants to discuss which disease they would prioritise over the other and ask why. If a second facilitator is available, have him/her record the reasons for their prioritisation. If one is not available, remember to later record the reasons after the session.
Please note: Coming to an agreement on the priority diseases may cause some debate amongst participants.
These discussions are important as they generate understanding of the rationale underlying participant’s prioritisation of diseases. As a facilitator, allow and encourage this discussion without inserting your ideas. Have the community members place the preferred name/symbol in the relevant box on the matrix
Step 3
Count the number of times each option appears in the matrix. Add them up and record totals at the bottom of the matrix using seeds, pebbles, or numbers (scoring). Then make a list of the options with the most prioritised disease ranked first.
Once complete, consider using the following questions to generate a discussion about the results:
• Does everyone agree on the prioritised diseases? • What is the impact of the prioritised diseases on animal-owning households? (e.g. livelihoods) • If they have not been identified through the activity, ask what are current disease prevention and treatment practices? • What can be done to prevent the prioritised diseases?
Step 4
Summarize the results of the activity and have the community helper add any actions and activities to the community action plan. Agree on a date and time for the next session.
The matrix should be left with the community. Make a copy or take a photograph for your reference for future discussions and further action planning. Add a copy to your project action tracker.
Facilitator’s notes: Pair-wise ranking
If the number of diseases to be compared is too long, this exercise can be boring. In this case, help participants to reduce the list of by focusing on a smaller number of prioritised diseases.
The discussions that people have about why they choose one option over another are just as important as the result. It is important to allow these discussions to happen. Take notes on the criteria participants use to decide on their priorities.
Participants may not know the scientific names of diseases and will have local names for them. The facilitator should have basic knowledge of animal diseases when participants come up with signs, symptoms, effects and seasonality in order to identify them.
Next Steps
Use understandings gained about what motivates animal owning communities’ to inform the design of projects and/or strategies
Priority diseases agreed by the group for further exploration and/or action may be revisited during community action planning and/or included in relevant sections of the community action plan (e.g. issues and action sections)
T8c: Pairwise Ranking and Scoring of Animal Diseases
This activity uses a matrix to make direct comparisons between resource and service providers. This tool is similar to matrix ranking and scoring (T9), as it prioritizes animal related resources and service providers important to communities, however does so in a quick and simple way, without including criteria participants use when prioritizing. However, reasons for their particular preferences can emerge during discussions between participants when priorities are debated.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To support animal owning communities in identifying and prioritizing the local resource and service providers important to their animals’ welfare • To identify types of resource and service providers the project can engage to support animal welfare improvements • To generate peer-peer discussion and learning about the importance of different animal-related resources and services to their animals’ welfare in a process of self-sensitization towards understanding animal welfare needs
1.5-2 hours
Materials needed:
Coloured powder, chalk, stick, tree leaves, coloured cards or other locally available materials to represent diseases, items and service providers
Keyword Search Tags
Project Phase: Planning Phase
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach, Community Engagement Approach
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools, Needs Assessment
Specific Topics: Animal Health and Services
Pair-wise ranking and scoring of animal-related resource & service providers
Pair-wise ranking and scoring may be used to analyze several aspects of resource and service providers, such as the importance of each on the welfare of animals, ranking of the quality, cost or availability of different providers (for example the veterinarians, animal health workers, feed, fodder and equipment sellers, etc.) or ranking several providers of the same service, such as the animal health workers in one locality.
T8c Pairwise ranking of resources and service providers in Halaba, Ethiopia
A group of animal owners scored and ranked animal-related resource and service providers in Halaba, Ethiopia, according to who they found most important for the welfare of their animal. They started by identifying the animal-related resource and service providers, including the farrier, the animal health service provider, the saddle maker, the shelter provider, the harness maker and the feed seller. The shelter provider, with whom they rent shelter space, was seen as the most important, as their animals are at risk at being attacked by hyenas at night. The shelter is important for preventing injury or death of animals. The second most priority animal-related service provider was the feed seller, as there is not enough available land and grass for grazing during the year since the area is highly prone to drought.
Pair-wise ranking and scoring of animal-related resource and service providers
Step 1
Start by explaining that the purpose of the exercise.
Ask one or two community helpers to create a matrix on the ground using coloured powder, chalk, or a stick or on chart paper using markers. Have a minimum of six (6) rows and columns, with room to add more should the community identify more than five criteria. Have one of the community helpers draw a line from the top left diagonal corner to the bottom right diagonal corner. Cross out the boxes below the diagonal line to avoid duplication (see Figure T8C).
At the same time, start by asking the community to identify the animal-related resource and service providers that are important for animals’ welfare. Have another community helper record them on cards or post-it notes. Use representative symbols, abbreviations, or locally available materials to depict the resource and service providers, such as different tree leaves. Make two sets of symbols for each identified resource and service provider. Place one set of symbols in the first column, from top to bottom. Then place the second set of symbols in the top row, from left to right.
Please note: It is the facilitator’s job to help the community reduce the number of resource and service providers to a maximum of eight (8) should they come up with a long list.
Please note: Ensure that you have multiple copies of the symbols to prepare for the prioritisation.
Step 2
One by one, compare each symbol in the columns with each symbol in the rows. Encourage participants to discuss which resource or service provider they would prioritise over the other and ask why. If a second facilitator is available, have him/her record the reasons for their prioritisation. If one is not available, remember to later record the reasons after the session.
Please note: Coming to an agreement on the priority resource and service providers may cause some debate amongst participants. These discussions are important as they generate understanding of the rationale underlying participant’s prioritisation of resource and service providers. As a facilitator, allow and encourage this discussion without inserting your ideas.
Have the community members place the preferred symbol in the relevant box on the matrix.
Step 3
Count the number of times each option appears in the matrix. Add them up and record totals at the bottom of the matrix using seeds, pebbles, or numbers (scoring). Then make a list of the options with the most-preferred option ranked first.
Once complete, consider using the following questions to generate a discussion about the results:
• Does everyone agree on the prioritised resource and service providers? • Are you satisfied with the available resource and service provision?
Summarize the results of the activity and agree a time to schedule a follow-up session to undertake next steps as relevant to the context.
Step 4
The matrix should be left with the community. Make a copy or take a photograph for your reference for future discussions and action planning. Add a copy to your project action tracker.
Facilitator’s notes: Pair-wise ranking
If the number of items being compared is too long, this exercise can be boring for participants. In this case, assist participants in reducing the list by focusing on a smaller number of prioritised service providers.
The discussions that people have about why they choose one option over another are just as important as the result. It is important to allow these discussions to happen. Consider asking a second facilitator to join you in order to capture the information that comes from the discussion or document them yourself after your community visit.
Depending on the context, , consider carrying out this activity separately between men and women or different groups of people in the project’s planning phase (e.g. owners, users, carers) and compare the results. Differences in the roles people play in animals’ lives and/or how they depend on their animals can influence how people prioritise choices. Discuss any differences in their responses and reasons for those differences.
This activity might identify potential local service provider influencers. Consider involving them in to future sessions to help strengthen the identified opportunities for change.
Next Steps
T9 Matrix Ranking and Scoring to deeply analyze the resource and service providers based on selected criteria to understand the barriers
T15 Cost-Benefit Analysis to explore the risks and opportunities of using one service or resource provider over another
This PLA may be conducted to assess change in a variety of contexts, and this tool includes guidance for two different versions, including: a) changing trends analysis, and b) before and now change analysis.
T11a: Changing Trend Analysis
A changing trend analysis helps the community to identify changing trends over time, for example over generations. Here, a ‘generation’ refers to people born and living around the same time e.g. ‘grandparents generation’, ‘parents generation’, ‘present generation’ etc. Through discussion of present and past situations, this tool enables participants to identify the significant changes that have occurred over time, promoting a greater understanding of the current situation.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To reflect on changes to the lives of animals and animal-owning households within a community over time: - animal populations - reliance and use of animals - animal husbandry and management practices - disease patterns - availability and use of health services and resources - climate or other environmental factors • To generate discussion about significant changes over time and reasons for any perceived negative changes that have occurred
2 - 3 hours
Materials needed:
Cards, pens, markers, coloured powder, chalk, sticks, tree leaves, coloured cards or other locally available materials.
Keyword Search Tags
Project Phase: Initiation Phase
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach, Community Engagement Approach
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools
Specific Topics: Animal Husbandry and Management; Animal Welfare, Feelings and Needs; Animal Health and Services; Livelihoods; Vulnerability / Resilience
Changing trend analysis
Figure T11A-1 Changing trend analysis matrix (analysis criteria on vertical axis, generations on horizontal axis)
Figure T11A-2 Changing trend analysis of changes affecting potters and their working animals over four generations
The completed matrix above is the result of a changing trend analysis carried out with a group of animal-owning farmers. It was used as part of a community needs assessment and shared vision. It shows changes in work type and land ownership, quantity, type and cost of animal feed and fodder, grazing land accessibility and availability, average household income and expenditure, availability of and distance to travel for water, human and animal disease prevalence and treatment options, and changing political situation. As a result of this exercise, farmers were able to identify opportunities to mitigate the trends they identified as negatively impacting their lives and the related welfare of their animals.
Changing Trend Analysis
Step 1
Start by explaining that the purpose of the exercise is to understand how the situation in the community has changed over time, and that the group will start with the present and then look at the past. Then ask the group what changes they have experienced in their lives as compared to the past?
Examples:
• Income-generating activities for men and women (separately) • Household income • Household expenditure
Other human aspects, such as food consumption, health and illness, education, and social groups, such as religious groups, self-help & savings/loaning groups, women’s groups. Access & availability of natural resources, such as water, wood, soil, land, etc.
Then ask about changes they have experienced related to their animals.
Examples include:
• Types of animals • Animal work types • Feed practices • Health/illness • Treatment
Ask the community helper to write all identified changes on cards using words or drawings. Make sure that each criterion is specific, for example if participants say ‘water’ clarity if they mean ‘access and availability of water’. Once all changes have been identified, ask participants to select the cards representing the changes which are most important to them. It is the facilitator’s job to ensure that the ones most important to the project are included.
Step 2
Then ask participants to define a timescale for their analysis. It may be based on generations, such as ‘in our grandparents’ time’, ‘in our parents’ time’ and ‘in our time’, or other important activities, events, or years.
Ask the community helper to draw a matrix on the ground and show the chosen time scale on the horizontal axis along the top of the matrix and place the cards with the trend criteria identified in step 1 down the vertical axis (figure T11A-1).
Step 3
Next, explain to the group that they will complete the matrix and decide with the group how they wish to display the situation for each trend criteria. For example, by scoring criteria that can be measured using seeds or stones (0 to 10 for income/expenditure), and/or drawings, symbols, or words for lists of objects etc. As the group defines the scenario for each trend criteria, ask the helper to represent the situation on cards using the chosen means of display.
Step 4
Once the matrix is complete, record the trend analysis by adding a column labelled ‘analyses to the matrix.
Use the following guiding questions to facilitate a discussion about changes over time:
• What are the significant trends or changes that have occurred over time? • Are these trends/changes positive or negative? • What caused these trends/changes to occur?
In the ‘analysis’ column, write whether the change has been positive or negative and have participants expand on the negative changes. Explore the possibility and interest in taking action to address the identified negative changes.
Step 5
The matrix produced should be left with the community. Take a picture or copy and add it to your project action tracker for future reference and to assist with intervention planning.
Facilitator’s Notes: Changing trend analysis
Include a broad cross-section of animal-owning household members of all ages. Invite 10-20 people to participate in this exercise (e.g. youth, adults, elders).
If it is not possible or locally appropriate to do the exercise collectively with both sexes, conduct the exercise separately with men and women. Each may recall different events and changes due to the impacts that resulted in their lives.
Do not lead participants into identifying changes that are not important to them. While asking probing questions, emphasize identifying changes that they perceive to be important. Events or perceived changes should not be included simply because the facilitator inquiries about them.
Clarify any doubts to understand people’s perceptions about changes over time by reaching consensus amongst participants.
Next Steps
As part of a community needs assessment and shared vision, this activity might accompany one or more of the following tools to get a full picture of community dynamics and needs for project planning:
T1 Mapping to understand which resources and services are important to the community.
T2 Mobility Map to understand where people spend most of their time and how long it takes to get places.
T3 Venn Diagram(T3b Social Networking Venn diagram) to identify key individuals, groups and actors perceived to be most important to people and their animals.
T12 Dependency Analysisto understand animal-owning households’ level of dependency on external actors and their implications on resources and services important to ensuring animals’ welfare.
T11b: Before and Now Analysis Changing Trend
The before and now analysis helps the community to identify changes from the beginning to the end of an animal welfare improvement project. This tool may be used to analyse many different aspects of peoples’ lives and the lives of their animals, including changes in people’s reliance/use of animals, animal care practices, animal disease patterns and related impacts on people, availability and use of animal-related health services and resources, climate or other environmental factors affecting animals and people.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To reflect on perceived changes in the lives of animals and animal owning households within the project period • As a learning and reflection tool to assess perceived changes in animal welfare and people’s behaviours as a result of community/project activities • To determine if there are remaining areas of improvement that can be addressed
2 hours
Materials needed:
Cards, pens, markers, coloured powder, chalk, sticks, tree leaves, coloured cards or other locally available materials.
Keyword Search Tags
Project Phase: Exit & Evaluation Phase
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach, Community Engagement Approach, Societal Outreach and Campaigns Approach
Behavioural Drivers (COM-B): Motivation
Stages of Behaviour Change: Maintenance Stage
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools, Monitoring and Evaluation
Specific Topics: Animal Husbandry and Management; Livelihoods; Vulnerability/Resilience
Owners know what to look for when animals being treated by LSP
7
LSP access
Previously free services
Availability better – now have LSP phone numbers
7
Beating
Everyone used to beat their animals
No more beating
6
Figure T11B Before and now results from a group of animal owners in Faisalabad, Pakistan
The matrix in figure 11B was produced by a group of animal-owners at the end of a five year project as part of the community’s self-evaluation. They wanted to determine whether the human and animal welfare changes within their community could be sustained over time without the intervention team. The group compared the situation before the intervention to the present state, analysed what the differences meant and whether they thought that they had the skills, knowledge and tools needed to continue to improve on their own.
The group identified six key areas where change has been observed since the beginning of the animal welfare improvement project: food provision (dietary diversity), water provision (daily increase), local service providers’ skills (improvement), owners’ knowledge of good animal welfare, access to local service providers (LSPs) and beating of animals. After scoring the extent to which the majority of the community had made positive change, the group determined that more work was needed to improve LSP skills, owners’ knowledge of animal welfare, access to LSPs and beating of animals. They added the actions that they would take to the community action plan and set a date for the next meeting to focus on beating, which scored the lowest amongst the positive changes.
Before and Now Analysis
Step 1
Start by explaining to the group that they will be reflecting on changes in the lives of animals and their own community members within the project period, comparing how things were before the project to now.
Step 2
Ask the group about the present situation relating to animals’ care, use and their own livelihood status. Have the group compare the present situation to the past.
Ask:
• What are some of the changes that have resulted since project/community action plan activities were implemented? • How have things changed since the beginning of the project?
As the community comes up with the present situation, have the community helper write the changes with words or symbols on cards.
Examples of change categories might include:
• Men’s/women’s work types • Animals’ usage • Household income, expenditure, credit (group formation) • Land access & usage • Animal and human diseases and treatments • Community dynamics (more cohesion amongst group) • Climate change situation (water/feed storage) • Political situation (changes to laws, by-laws) • Environmental change (infrastructure improvements, increased availability of resources)
Please note: If the community comes up with more than 10 changes, ask participants to select the cards representing the 8-10 changes which are most important to them.
Step 3
Ask the community helper to draw a matrix on the ground or large sheet of chart paper. Label three columns ‘change in project’, ‘before’ and ‘now’. Have the helper place the cards representing the most important changes down the first column under ‘change in project’.
Then, facilitate a discussion on how the present situation has changed since the project started. The past and present situations will be defined by the community through this discussion. As each situation is defined for each of the changes, have the community helper write the results on cards and place the past scenario in the ‘before’ column and the present situation in the ‘now’ column.
Step 4
Have the community helper add a fourth column and label it ‘score’. Ask the community to score out of 10 the proportion of the community who meets the ‘now’ criteria. For example, a score of 10 = everyone has changed; 0 = no change.
Step 5
Once the matrix is complete, discuss the results of the activity with the group.
Follow the discussion by asking:
• Does everyone agree with the results? If yes, why? If no, why not? • What needs to change for everyone to achieve the desired result? - Can you achieve the desired results without our intervention? - If yes, do you feel that you have skills, knowledge, and resources to continue without the intervention team?
If the group determines that not all the project objectives have been met and wish to continue with the project, have the community helper add any identified priorities to the community action plan for later discussion and further planning.
Step 6
The matrix should be documented through photos or recreated on paper. Copies should be made and distributed to the group for their records, future reference and/or action planning. Add a copy to your project action tracker.
Facilitator’s Notes: Before and now analysis
If possible, invite 10-15 people to participate in this exercise.
If it is not possible or locally appropriate to do the exercise collectively with both sexes, consider conducting the exercise separately with men and women. Each may recall different change criteria due to the impacts that resulted in their lives.
Do not lead participants into identifying changes that are not important to them. While asking probing questions, emphasize identifying changes that they perceive to be important. Perceived changes should not be included simply because the facilitator inquiries about them.
Have the community’s original shared vision available for reference during the final discussion.
Next Steps
If the community determines it is satisfied with the changes it has achieved:
Consider using T28 Group Sustainability Mapping tool to help participants in planning to sustain their welfare improvements independently once support from the facilitating organization has ceased.
The facilitating organization may use the qualitative before and now findings of project successes to support project reporting or future funding proposals.
If participants indicate the project activities have not achieved the desired changes, update the community action plan and project action tracker with any new agreed actions. Re-evaluate persistent issues using any or all of the following tools:
T21 Animal Welfare Practice Gap Analysis to identify actions people can take, either individually or collectively, to address gaps in animal husbandry and management to improve animal welfare
Generate discussion and awareness amongst community members about their animals’ welfare needs and the animal husbandry and management practices that can meet them (refer to Part 1 below).
Support the identification of behaviours that are feasible for communities to adopt to improve their animals' welfare (refer to Part 2 below).
Identify actions communities can take to improve their animals welfare even when they are unable to address identified welfare issues due to barriers they/the project faces in resolving these issues’ root causes (refer to Part 3 below).
This resource demonstrates how the five domains of animal welfare framework can be linked with human behaviours using donkeys as an example. It illustrates its use as a discussion tool in promoting understanding of donkey’s welfare needs, and for identifying behaviours feasible for community members to adopt to improve their donkeys’ welfare. Refer to this illustrative example to support your development of a five domains framework linked with human behaviours that is relevant to the context of your work. The Animals and Communities Learning Module is also a recommended foundational reading for understanding animal welfare and the five domains of animal welfare discussed in this resource.
PART 1: Developing a Five Domains of Welfare Linked to Human Behaviours Discussion Tool
Table 9a provides an illustrative example of a five domains of welfare framework for donkeys, linked with identified potential human behaviours for meeting donkeys’ welfare needs. It is recommended to populate the five domains framework with animal welfare experts knowledgeable in the target species, and then brainstorm a list of human behaviours in consultation with representative members of the animal owning community to ensure they reflect locally appropriate and acceptable behaviours. In addition, animal welfare experts must work hand in hand with community development/engagement teams for these discussions to ensure any potential behaviours identified for meeting animals’ welfare needs support positive life experiences and do not adversely cause harm to animals. Developing a species specific five domains framework linked to the potential human behaviours for meeting an animals’ welfare needs within the domains of nutrition, health, environment and behaviour can support community discussions and awareness raising about animals’ welfare needs and the animal husbandry and management practices recommended to meet them.
Donkey Welfare Needs Associated with Domains of Welfare
Human Behaviours Associated with Meeting Donkey’s Welfare Needs (Ideal Best Practices Appropriate within Local Context)
NUTRITION DOMAIN
a.Food Quantity and Quality · Donkey’s nutritional requirements are met by eating a sufficient quantity and variety of nutritional feeds (e.g. fibre based feeds) for taste and pleasure. · Donkeys feed on small potions and very often. This is essential for health. In a natural situation donkeys eat for 12-16 hours a day to maintain health. With work they likely need additional energy (e.g. feed during rest breaks during work). b.Water Quantity and Quality: · Donkeys have access to and drink sufficient quantity of water while working and at home
a.Human Behaviours Related to Food Quantity and Quality · Provide sufficient quantities of predominantly fibre based feeds (grass/hay) and other suitable locally available forages including straw (e.g. from oat, barley, wheat), and/or soya meal as local availability permits based on recommended proportions for their animals’ size and workload, at intervals throughout their working day (every 3 hours or /2-3 times/day). · Provide donkeys with opportunities to graze on natural forage when they are not working as often as possible when locally available and provide forage (e.g. straw/hay) when they are not working if there is no or limited natural vegetation available to graze. b.Human Behaviours Related to Water Quantity and Quality · Provide freely available clean water to donkeys whenever they are at home not working. · Provide clean water to donkeys throughout their working day (every 3 hours or /2-3 times/day). · Provide more clean water during hot seasons/conditions and adjust working hours to avoid strong heat time
HEALTH DOMAIN
a.Absence of Disease b.Absence of Lameness c.Absence of Preventable Injuries e.g. wounds d.Provide Timely Treatment and Pain Management
a.Human Behaviours Promoting Absence of Disease · Seek yearly health checks from qualified animal health service providers. · Check donkey’s general health and well-being on daily basis. · Take preventative measures against preventable diseases at recommended treatment intervals (e.g. yearly vaccines, parasite control). · Clean manure from donkey resting areas at home on a daily basis to mitigate parasitic diseases spread by flies, and hoof health issues. b.Human Behaviours Promoting Absence of Lameness · Load donkey carts in a balanced way within the reasonable maximum load to prevent lameness · Pick/clean donkey’s hooves daily before and after working to maintain hoof health and comfort during working. · Seek qualified farriery service providers to trim donkey’s hooves at the regularly recommended frequency to promote hoof health and mitigate lameness. · Clean donkey resting areas on a daily basis to ensure substrate is clean and doesn’t accumulate pools of water/urine to mitigate hoof health issues. · Allow the donkey to go more slowly and choose their route if the ground surface is uneven. If an alternative less uneven route is available, select this route. · Allow the donkey to go more slowly and choose their route if the ground surface is uneven. If an alternative less uneven route is available, select this route. c.Human Behaviours Promoting Absence of Preventable Injuries e.g. wounds · Clean equipment which comes into direct contact with donkey’s skin to remove accumulation of dust and prevent painful rubbing and wounds (e.g. pads and harnesses). · Load donkey carts in a balanced way to prevent equipment rubbing from causing wounds. · Use body and verbal communication to guide donkeys instead of whipping to prevent wounds and stress. · Groom animals to remove dust from skin before they work to prevent equipment rubbing and causing wounds. · Use properly fitting, quality equipment purchased from welfare friendly equipment suppliers (e.g. cart, harness, bit makers), and/or made from locally available materials in accordance with recommendations for promoting welfare (e.g. padding made with straw). · Clean donkey’s eyes daily to remove discharge and debris and check for abnormalities to help mitigate eye problems. · Load donkeys with no more than the recommended weight appropriate for the animals’ size to prevent injury. d.Human Behaviours Promoting Timely Treatment and Pain Management · Clean any skin wounds in accordance with recommended guidance as soon as wounds are observed. · Provide rest for donkey to recover from the injury or until wound recovers · Seek timely treatment from qualified animal health service providers when animal is sick or injured. · Donkeys pain and suffering is managed as needed when injuries or illnesses occur through administration of pain medications prescribed and administered as needed by a qualified animal health service professional
ENVIRONMENT DOMAIN
a.Thermal Comfort/Weather Protection · Prevention of adverse physiological reactions from sun/heat and adverse weather conditions b.Safe Environment · Environment where donkey lives/works is safe and does not pose a risk of injury/harm e.g. traffic, edible rubbish, sharp objects, pooling water where animal stands etc. · Environment permits escape/safety from predation c.Space for Exhibiting Natural Behaviours · Sufficient available space for donkeys to freely socialize with others within shelter or outside the shelter, and also to allow them to move away from other animals as needed e.g. to avoid conflict · Donkeys have space to roam and carry out normal grazing/foraging behaviours without competition · Donkeys have space to roll in the dirt and scratch when not working. d.Substrate/Floor Comfort · Substrate where animals rest and stand is free from excrement and/or pooling water
a.Human Behaviours Related to Thermal Comfort/Weather Protection · Provide donkeys with shelter during hot and wet/rainy weather. · Rest donkeys in shade or shelter with appropriate ventilation while on breaks during working hours to protect them from the heat of the sun and other adverse weather conditions. · Provide shelter large enough to accommodate all animals made of locally available and appropriate materials to remain at optimal temperatures that protect their animals from the heat and other adverse weather conditions (e.g. physical building, wall or other man made or natural structure that is appropriately ventilated.) b.Human Behaviours Promoting a Safe Environment for Donkeys · Remove harmful items/hazards from locations where donkeys are left to rest, graze, and in their shelter areas (e.g. edible plastics, sharp objects etc.) to prevent risk of harm. · Use shelter materials which are safe and do not pose a risk to donkey’s safety · When allowing donkeys to freely graze iv. Keep an eye on their movements and ensure they do not wander to rubbish heaps and ingest plastics and/or v. Tether donkeys using recommended welfare promoting methods and equipment to ensure their safety and prevent their ingestion of harmful materials, and change their location frequently so as not to limit the quantity of feed they are able to graze. · Keep to sides of roads to mitigate potential traffic collisions while transporting goods/people. · Equip donkey carts with reflectors to ensure they are visible to traffic while working. · Equip donkey carts with breaking systems to help manoeuvre effectively in traffic while working. · Ensure donkeys are safe from potential theft, predation and road traffic at night by keeping them in their shelters or other designated safe space close to home where they can be heard if distressed. · Ensure donkeys are safe from road traffic accidents at night by using carts with reflectors. c.Human Behaviours Promoting Space for Donkeys to Exhibit Natural Behaviours · Provide daily opportunities for donkeys to freely roam/carry out normal grazing/foraging behaviours without competition whenever safe to do so. · Allocate adequate space as available and daily opportunities while donkeys are not working to: 1) to freely move their limbs in a natural state, 2) rest, access feed, and avoid excrement, 3) socialize with other donkeys if present/feasible, and 4) move away from other animals as needed for their safety/mitigate conflict/competition and/or predation, 5) Roll and scratch without hindrance of equipment. d.Human Behaviours Promoting Substrate/Floor Comfort · Clean donkey shelters/rest area’s at home daily of excrement and any and excess pooling water · Provide deep, soft substrate for comfort and effective rest/sleep.
BEHAVIOUR DOMAIN
a.Ability/agency to interact with other animals · Donkeys can choose to interact and socialize with other donkeys or other species animals (e.g. touch/mutual grooming, play) or remove themselves from the presence of others. b.Ability/agency to Interact with Environment/Exhibit Natural Behaviours · Donkeys carry out normal behaviours such as rolling, lying down/resting, and resting during non-work periods without restriction. · Donkeys choose and carry out to graze, scratch, shelter, roll or explore their physical environment. c.Donkeys Respond Positively to Interactions with Humans e.g. alertness, interest, engagement with people, calm, no fear or stress response, or remove themselves from interacting with humans
a.Human Behaviours Promoting Donkey Agency · Provide donkeys with an ability to choose to move around freely without restriction/restraint while at rest at home. · Allow donkeys to interact with other animals (touch/mutual grooming), and move away from other donkeys if they choose too, including during their work day whenever feasible without hindering their work. · Use a halter when it is necessary to restrict a donkey’s movement. b.Human Behaviours Promoting Donkeys Exhibition of Natural Behaviours · Use recommended welfare friendly methods of restricting donkey’s movement when it necessary to so as to enable them to maintain as much natural movement as possible (e.g. use of harness and rope rather than hobbling) · Allow donkey foals stay with their mothers as much as possible, and provide them with opportunities to socialize and play with other foals if feasible. · Provide donkeys with intervals of rest throughout the day when they are working, and a day of rest at home without working them after lengthy work days to enable them to recuperate. · Provide donkeys with daily opportunities to freely carry out normal behaviours such as rolling, scratching, grazing, and interacting/playing with other donkeys if available while at home and not working. c.Human Behaviours Supporting Positive Interactions with Donkeys · Calmly approach and speak with donkeys to keep them calm and prevent stressful human interactions which cause them to exhibit fear or aggression. · Use body language communication or sound cues and/or as a ‘firefighting’ immediate option only, the presence of soft sticks which are unable to inflict pain can be used as a visual encouragement or light tap to inspire Donkeys to move as needed rather than whipping them which can cause them fear and stress. · Provide information to a handler or any third party how their donkeys are trained and respond to cues · Owners seek to develop owns skill to train and communicate with their donkeys in a compassionate way or ask for support from animal welfare organizations to build their own skills.
¯ DONKEY’S MENTAL STATE WHEN NEEDS MET/HUMAN BEHAVIOURS ADOPTED ¯
Free from fear, distress, anxiety Feels comfortable Expresses happiness and enjoys pleasure Feels Secure, Protected and Confident
Table 9a. Example Five Domains of Welfare Framework for Donkeys Linked with Human Behaviours
PART 2: Using Root Cause Analysis and Five Domains Framework linked with Human Behaviours to Identify Feasible Animal Welfare Issues and Actions for Addressing Them
The steps below outline a process which can be used or adapted to support the identification of behaviours that are feasible for communities to adopt to improve their animals welfare through use of a root cause analysis and species specific five domains of welfare linked with human behaviours.
First identify the animal welfare issues prevalent in the community. Consider using a participatory animal welfare assessment process, ideally involves members of the animal owning community whenever feasible to do so. The T22 Animal Welfare Transect Walk tool can be used to support this process.
Next, seek to understand the root causes of identified animal welfare issues in collaboration with community members or representative key informants from the animal owning community. Consider using the T25 Problem Animaltool to support undertaking a participatory root cause analysis of identified animal welfare issues. An example of root cause analysis for animal welfare issues identified through a participatory animal welfare assessment are illustrated in Figure 9a below.
Once a root cause analysis of welfare issues has been conducted, facilitate a discussion with community members or representative key informants from the animal owning community to the animal welfare issues which may be feasible and of interest for community members and the project to work together to address based on an understanding of their root causes. Seek agreement on the welfare issues which will be prioritized for improvement, and use a species specific five domains framework linked with potential human behaviours (refer to example in Table 9A above) to further discuss and identify the behaviours feasible for community members to adopt to address these welfare issues. Consider inviting animal welfare experts to the discussion to ensure any behaviours identified do not adversely harm animals and are likely to result in desired animal welfare improvements. Refer to the following considerations to help the selection of target behaviours:
How likely it is the behaviour can be changed (when considering the likelihood of change being achieved, think about the barriers and motivators to change in terms of capability, opportunity, and motivation to change of those who perform the behaviour)
How much of an impact adopting the behaviour would have on improving the overall welfare state of the animal in terms of the five domains.
How likely it is that the behaviour (or group of behaviours) will have a positive or negative impact on other, related behaviours.
How easy it will be to measure the behaviour.
Can the project support communities in adopting this behaviour given its available resources and implementation capacity e.g. if the project is being implemented through trained community change agents, can they effectively support communities in adopting this behaviour as needed?
Figure 9a. Example Root Cause Analysis of Donkey Welfare Issues
Table 9b below is an example of the target donkey welfare issues and behaviours identified as feasible for a community and project to address based on the results of the root cause analysis in Figure 9a. These discussions included representative community key informants and change agents, as well as animal welfare experts who helped ensure any behaviours identified support animal welfare improvements and do no harm.
Identified Donkey Welfare Issues Feasible to Address Based on Root Cause Analysis
Identified Behaviour Change Priorities for Addressing Priority Donkey Welfare Issues (Feasible and Appropriate within Local Context)
NUTRITION DOMAIN
a. Donkey is malnourished/skinny due to insufficient provision of quality and quantity of feed - Not feasible to address based on root cause analysis
Not feasible to address at this stage.
HEALTH DOMAIN
a. Excessive eye discharge b. Back Wounds c. Hindquarter wounds d. Overgrown hooves - Not feasible to address based on root cause analysis
a.Human Behaviours for Addressing Eye Discharge · Clean donkey’s eyes daily to remove discharge and debris and check for abnormalities to help mitigate eye problems. · Avoid as far as possible environments with air contamination e.g. during rest if it is not possible to avoid during work · Contact animal health practitioner if one eye is being different to the other eye, swelling, closed eye, thick and have coloured discharge and there is obvious change to the colour of the eye. · Avoid using blinkers and decorative items that dangle around the eyes b.Human Behaviours for Addressing Back Wounds · Wipe down and/or shake out any equipment to remove any accumulated mud or dirt before or after each use to prevent excess accumulation of dirt causing rubbing. · Groom animals carefully to remove dirt and dust from skin before they work to prevent equipment rubbing and causing wounds. · Use back padding under any loads whenever donkeys are using packs or to prevent carts from rubbing, in accordance with welfare promoting instructions for making such back pads using locally available materials (instructions to be provided by project). · Gentle cleaning with clean cloth to clean the wound. · Give the donkey to rest to recover from the wound c.Human Behaviours for Addressing Hindquarter Wounds · Rest animals from work to enable wounds to heal. · Use body and verbal communication or sound cues and/or as a ‘firefighting’ immediate option only and once wounds are healed use soft sticks which are unable to inflict pain as a visual encouragement or a light tap to inspire donkey’s to move as needed rather than whipping them which can cause them fear and stress (Request for a Compassionate Handling training to be provided by an animal welfare organization).
ENVIRONMENT DOMAIN
n/a – no issues identified from transect walk
n/a – no issues identified from transect walk
BEHAVIOUR DOMAIN
n/a – no issues identified from transect walk
· n/a
Table 9b: Priority Animal Welfare Issues and Actions for Addressing Them
PART 3: Using a Five Domains of Animal Welfare Framework Linked with Human Behaviours to Improve Animal Welfare When Unable to Address Root Causes of Animal Welfare Issues
While identifying existing animal welfare issues is a recommended step in community animal welfare improvement projects, it is not uncommon for community members or a project to be constrained in their ability to address the root causes of such issues. For example, it may not be feasible to resolve animal welfare issues whose root cause is communities’ lack of access or availability of financial resources using a Community Engagement Approach where trained community change agents are the primary implementing agents tasked with supporting community behaviour change at the individual household level. When resolving identified animal welfare issues is not feasible, opportunities to increase animals’ positive life experiences nevertheless exist.
Using a species specific five domains framework linked with associated human behaviours, you can facilitate discussions with community members and encourage them to identify and adopt other feasible actions/behaviours to improve the overall net gain in animals’ welfare even when identified welfare issues cannot be addressed. Using this resource can support flexible, solution oriented discussions with communities for improving animal welfare which are cognizant of contextual constraints, and mitigate promotion of unobtainable welfare standards that are not feasible to achieve. Improving animal welfare is more about creating positive change in animals’ welfare status through increasing animals’ positive life experiences so as to tip the balance between negative and positive life experiences. While addressing identified animal welfare issues is always a goal, you can still achieve an overall net gain in animal welfare even when such issues remain unaddressed. Figure 9b below illustrates the concept of this balance of life experiences.
Figure 9b: Balance of Life Experiences (adapted from [2])
To improve animal welfare it is important to seek to understand and assess animals both positive AND negative experiences within each domain and consider how an animal’s experiences within each of the four domains may be contributing to its mental state AND influencing its overall welfare. Thus, in addition to the identified donkey welfare issues (negative experiences) and associated human behaviours that can be adopted to address them which were identified in Table 9b above, Table 9c below provides examples of additional feasible actions identified in discussion with community members to improve their donkeys’ overall positive life experiences identified by using table 9a to generate awareness and discussion amongst community members. This demonstrates how this facilitator resource can be used to promote animal welfare improvements through focusing on ways to promote positive life experience rather than solely focus on addressing welfare issues. Without it, these opportunities for improving donkeys welfare through enhancing positive life experiences would not have been identified through the transect walk alone, which focussed more on assessing animals’ welfare to identify issues. It is recommended to prioritize elements within each of the domains instead of focussing on all efforts for improving an animals’ welfare within fewer domains to the extent feasible. As such, for this exercise, communities were encouraged to identify ways they could improve their animals’ positive life experiences within the domains of environment, behaviour and nutrition since all of their previously identified issues and behaviours were associated within the one domain of health.
Donkey Welfare Needs/Positive Life Experiences
Identified Potential Behaviour Change Priorities to Improve Donkey’s Welfare (Feasible and Appropriate within Local Context)
NUTRITION DOMAIN
a. Donkeys feed on small portions and often
Human Behaviours Promoting Improved Donkey Feeding a. Provide donkeys with feed and water 2-3 times a day throughout their working day (every 3 hours or 2-3 times/day).
HEALTH DOMAIN
N/A – priority donkey welfare issues already identified for health domain (refer to table 9b)
N/A - human behaviours to address priority donkey health issues already identified (refer to table 9b)
ENVIRONMENT DOMAIN
a.Thermal Comfort/Weather Protection · Prevention of adverse physiological reactions from sun/heat and adverse weather conditions b.Space for Exhibiting Natural Behaviours · Donkeys have space to roll in the dirt and scratch when not working.
a.Human Behaviours Related to Thermal Comfort/Weather Protection · Rest donkeys in shade or shelter while on breaks during working hours to protect them from the heat of the sun and other adverse weather conditions. b.Human Behaviours Promoting Space for Donkeys to Exhibit Natural Behaviours · Provide adequate accessible space for donkeys to roll, scratch, and lay down without hindrance of equipment when not working.
BEHAVIOUR DOMAIN
a.Ability/agency to exhibit natural behaviours/interact with other animals · Donkeys can choose to interact with other animals of their species (e.g. touch/mutual grooming, play) or remove themselves from the presence of other animals. · Donkeys can choose to carry out normal behaviours such as rolling, lying down/resting, and resting during non-work periods. b.Donkeys Respond Positively to Interactions with Humans
a.Human Behaviours Supporting Donkeys Exhibition of Natural Behaviours · Provide donkeys with daily opportunities to freely carry out normal behaviours such as rolling, scratching, grazing, and interacting/playing with other donkeys (if present) while at home and not working. b.Human Behaviours Supporting Positive Interactions with Donkeys · Use communication or sound cues and/or the presence of soft tipped sticks which can be used as a visual encouragement or light tap to inspire Donkey’s to move as needed rather than whipping them which can cause them fear and stress (also supports addressing whipping wounds under health domain).
Table 9c: Additional Actions for Increasing Positive Life Experiences of Donkeys to Improve their Overall Welfare Status
Most communities may not know how best to apply the Cost-benefit analysis tool (T15) to motivate groups to improve the welfare of their working animals. The animal welfare snakes, and ladder game provide a fun and entertaining way for the communities to apply the cost benefit analysis tool: The tool is adapted from the traditional ‘snakes and ladders’ game.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
To engage the interest of participants and increase their collective knowledge about animal management and motivates them to act on poor welfare practices.
2 hours
Materials needed:
Chart paper or a piece of cloth, markers, or other locally available resources, such as cards, photos, bottle tops, leaf’s, stones, etc.
Stages of Behaviour Change: Pre-contemplation Stage, Contemplation Stage
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools
Specific Topics: Animal Husbandry and Management; Animal Handling; Animal Welfare, Feelings and Needs; Community Change Agents
Figure T16: Illustrated example of original large cloth board of Snakes and ladders game developed by Brooke Egypt, Cairo (2009).
Animal Welfare Snakes and Ladders Game
Step 1
For this game you need to prepare beforehand. The common Snakes and Ladders board game is used for the exercise, either the small size available in the market, or you can make a big version using large sheets of cloth or paper. The game has between 50 and 100 squares in a matrix. Ladders and snakes are drawn or painted on, connecting different squares (see Figure T16b)
To convert the game for animal welfare cost-benefit analysis, two types of information need to be collected before starting:
• Existing animal management or work practices which are positive/good. • Existing animal management or work practices which are negative/bad.
These practices need to be recorded in advance on cards, using words, symbols, or photos. Place one card in the square at the top and bottom of each snake, and one at the top and bottom of each ladder. Snakes are usually associated with cost or loss and ladders with benefit or gain. This cost or loss and benefit or gain can be expressed in both welfare and financial terms. For example, bad hoof care practices can lead to lameness (pain and poor welfare for the animal) as well as three days’ loss of work for the owner, costing them a certain amount of money a day. Alternatively, causes and effects can be put at opposite ends of the snakes and ladders. For example, the card at a snake’s head could show a lame animal, while the one at the tail could show poor hoof care practices (bad quality shoeing or untrimmed feet).
Step 2
Normally six to eight people play the game together using dice. Each participant is represented by a different counter or object (such as a bottle top, leaf, or stone) placed on the first square. Everyone gets a chance to play by rolling the dice in turn. At the beginning somebody must roll a six before the game can start. Then each player moves their counter the same number of squares as he or she rolls on the dice.
Step 3
When a player’s counter lands on a square containing a card or photo, the card is turned and discussed by the players. If a player reaches a square showing the head of a snake, the counter must be moved down to the tail of the snake. When a player reaches a square at the bottom of a ladder, they can climb the ladder to reach the square at the top.
Before moving from a snake’s tail, players must describe a situation that they have experienced which is like the one shown on the card. Encourage the group to discuss this and decide what types of action would turn the cost into a benefit, before moving on to the next player.
Facilitation Notes
Consider using many variations of this game, such as placing question cards about good and bad animal management practices in random squares on the board.
Consider using a large board so that players can walk around it to play.
The game can be used with both adult and children with great success.
Next Steps
The tool can be supplemented with the following tools to determine if there have been any changes in motivation of the community towards improving their animal welfare and the value they place on the animal, as well as their knowledge on how to best take care of the animals:
‘If I were an animal’ is a tool specifically designed to put the animal and its welfare at the centre of community analysis and discussion and is very popular in animal-owning communities. It enables people to experience the point of view of the working animal by asking them to reflect on the question: ‘If I were an animal, what would I expect from my owner or carer?’ This tool is a good follow up to animal body mapping (T20) and animal feeling analysis (T19).
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To raise awareness of animals’ needs and promoting positive welfare states • To understand the effects on animals and humans when animals’ needs are not met • To identify the perceived extent animals’ needs are being met within the community • Can support identification of indicators related to animals’ body and behaviours, husbandry and management practices, and effects of animal’s welfare on people’s lives • To identify perceived animal welfare issues and gaps in knowledge to support intervention planning
1.5 - 2 hours
Materials needed:
Sticks, coloured powder or chart paper, cards, markers, stones, beans, seeds or other locally available materials. Picture of an animal if one is available.
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach, Community Engagement Approach, Societal Outreach and Campaigns Approach
Behavioural Drivers (COM-B): Behaviour Change Diagnosis and Planning, Capability, Motivation
Stages of Behaviour Change: Pre-contemplation Stage, Contemplation Stage
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools, Needs Assessment, Monitoring and Evaluation
Specific Topics: Animal Husbandry and Management; Animal Handling; Animal Welfare, Feelings and Needs; Livelihoods; Compassion / Empathy, Community Change Agents / Resilience
If I were an animal…’
Figure T17 shows the completed ’If I were an animal’ diagram developed by a group of animal owners as one of the first steps in a participatory welfare needs assessment. They identified five expectations that their animals have of them as owners in order to survive and thrive: humane handling (no beating), no over-loading, timely treatment, sufficient feed/fodder and sufficient water. In the second circle they scored their present practices out of ten: they scored lowest on humane handling (no beating) and highest on sufficient food/fodder. Through discussion, the group identified the effects of not meeting their animals’ expectations on the animal, including fear, lameness, weakness and wounds, including where they would look for the specific behavioural and physical signs resulting from not meeting their animals’ expectation. Finally, they identified the effects on the human owners, including loss of income and aggressive/scared animals that are more difficult to handle. These effects were recorded and used by the group to assess their animals during an Animal welfare transect walk (T22).
'If I were an animal'
Step 1
Start by encouraging participants to see the world from their animals’ point of view. Ask what expectations their animals have of them to have a happy and healthy life. If they are struggling with this concept, ask them what they need as humans to be happy and healthy, then extend the question to their animals. At this point, the group should start identifying expectations animals have of their owners. Ask the community helper to write the expectations on cards for everyone to see or use representative drawings.
When participants have finished identifying their animals’ expectations of them, it is the facilitator’s responsibility to ensure that all welfare components have been considered. Use the following guiding questions as needed to facilitate participants to identify their animals’ expectations of them in terms of any of the following domains of welfare which they have not yet considered:
• Health - What do animals need/expect of owners to be healthy? (Disease prevention, timely treatment, proper fitting equipment) • Nutrition - What do animals need/expect of owners for good nutrition? (feeding & watering) • Environment - What do animals need/expect of owners in their environment? (Comfort, rest, temperature, shelter) • Behaviour - What do animals need/expect of owners to express their natural behaviours? (Freedom of movement, social interaction with other animals)
Please note: The facilitator should group/organise similar expectations into one category and explain the reason for the grouping (only if the anticipated effects of the expectation not being met are the same). For example, if the community identified ‘free access to water’ and ‘clean water’, consider consolidating the two examples into one ‘free access to clean water’ category.
Once the list is complete, ask the community helper to record the group-identified expectations on cards using words, symbols, or local materials.
Step 2
Next, ask the community helper to draw a big circle on the ground or on paper and place an animal in the centre. If you carry drawings or models of animals with you, such as the one used for animal body mapping (T20), put one of these in the centre of the circle to represent the animal instead.
Step 3
Once all cards have been placed, ask participants which of the actors support their animals specifically. Mark the card with coloured dot or sticker representative of the animal. The more the dots or sticker representing the animal are placed on an actor, the more support the actor provides.
Step 4
Ask participants to identify which relationships are accessible by men, women, or both, by placing a different indicative mark on the card (either using pens or stickers, or bean types). If the relationship is accessible to both men and women, ask whether accessibility is equal for both sexes. You may wish to place a > / = / < in between the representative marks or objects to indicate which sex has greater access. If it is just one group (e.g. only men) then this step is not necessary.
Step 5
Once the social Venn diagram is complete, encourage participants to discuss what it shows (if not already identified through previous discussions).
Consider using the following questions as a guide:
• Why are some relationships perceived to be more or less important? • Why are certain actors more important for men or women? (If identified) • Are there differences between men, women and/or children within the household? • Why are some actors positively or negatively affecting people and their animals? • What changes in this network could improve yours and/or your animals’ lives? • What can you as an individual or group do to improve your relationships with these actors? • What have you learned because of participating in this activity?
Initiation Phase:
Step 6
The diagram should be documented through photos or recreated on paper. Copies should be made and distributed to the group for their records, future reference and/or action planning. Add a copy to your project action tracker.
Planning Phase:
Step 7
Have the community helper record any actions the group agrees to the community action plan. Record the community’s agreed actions and activities in your project action tracker and support the community by following up with any identified key stakeholders.
Facilitator’s Notes: ‘If I were an animal’
Consider conducting an animal feeling analysis (T19) in a prior session to assess the positive and negative factors that influence how animals feel and behave.
Ideally, this exercise should be carried out with 15-20 participants in order have everyone input into the discussion. If the group is large, consider having a second facilitator and break the group into two.
Encourage everyone to express their own views and avoid using only one person’s examples or contributions for the diagram. Allow enough time to discuss participants’ own beliefs and traditional animal management practices.
It can be helpful to have pictures/diagrams on hand that represent the possible effects on animals when their expectations are not met, which may be used instead of hand writing. This can support sensitization and be used in situations where literacy is low.
Next Steps
Follow up with the T22 Animal welfare transect walk to support the assessment and monitoring of animals’ welfare and identification of common welfare problems to inform action planning.
As a first step, the facilitator should prepare a list of the observable indicators derived from identified expectations and effects which reflect animal-based indicators (body and behavioural related indicators), resources, and management practices. In addition, animal-based welfare indicators identified through T19 ‘Animal feeling analysis’, and/or T20 ‘Animal body mapping’ exercises can be used to inform indicator selection for the transect walk. This list of indicators can then be presented back to the community to agree on the criteria which defines each in terms of good, moderate, bad condition/state (green, yellow, red).
Consider using the ‘effects on humans’ identified in step six to inform human indicator selection if part of the project.
Address any identified gaps in knowledge through sensitization or training sessions. It is recommended to conduct this prior to undertaking any community-based action planning.
Any identified gaps can be examined in more detail using the following tools, especially prior to undertaking any community-based action planning:
T21 Animal welfare practice gap analysisto promote understanding of the drivers of gaps in animal welfare practices, such as lack of motivation, resources, or knowledge that can be used to develop targeted behavioural change strategies.
T25 Problem animal to identify the root causes of the different animal welfare issues observed on the body of the animal and inform action planning to address them.
T26 Animal welfare cause effect analysis to explore the root causes of specific animal welfare issues and promote understanding of the effects of the issue on animals and people as a means to generate improved motivation to take action and inform action planning.
This tool encourages people to think about how their animal(s) feels based on their experience. By mapping animals’ experiences and associated feelings over time, it allows community members to see the cumulative positive and/or negative impact of these experiences. In this way, the tool can provide insights into how communities perceive their animals’ experiences and understand their feelings and needs.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• Generate communities’ understanding of how daily activities affect animals’ feelings contribute to animals’ positive or negative welfare states and impact their quality of life. • Improve communities’ compassion for their animals. • Support communities to identify opportunities for providing positive life experiences of their animals. • Motivate communities to increase the provision and frequency of positive life experiences of their animals, as well as other people in their lives. • Help identify gaps in communities’ understanding of animal welfare and animal sentience which can help inform project activity planning
2-2.5 hours
Materials needed:
Facilitator prompt sheets/visual aids including Balance of Life Experiences scale (refer to the animal welfare learning module for example), Five Domains of animal welfare, pens, and paper (not limited to paper, the facilitator can explore different ways the different communities want to document their information)
Stages of Behaviour Change: Pre-contemplation Stage
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools, Training
Specific Topics: Animal Husbandry and Management; Animal Handling; Animal Welfare, Feelings and Needs; Animal Health and Services; Compassion/Empathy; Community Change Agents
T18a: A day in the Life of an Animal
“A day in a life of an animal”
Step 1
Form 2-3 small groups of 3-5 people depending on the number of participants. The more groups the longer the activity may take.
Step 2
Ask the groups to think about the animals in their community, and to choose an individual animal that they will explore together. Ask the group for a summary of the individual animal, for example age, name, whether they work. If using pens and paper this animal can be drawn in the middle, or if reporting verbally then the participants can give a quick overview in the introduction to the group in Step 5.
Be prepared to ensure the group focuses on one example (e.g., a horse working in a brick kiln, a chicken providing eggs).
Step 3
Ask each group to draw a clock with 24hrs and briefly describe what the animal is doing over the course of the day (e.g., waking up, eating/drinking, being prepared for work, working, resting) and map these on the 24 clocks. Check to ensure all key periods and activities have been included, asking probing questions if you think anything may be missing.
Step 4
Then ask each group to pick at least 3 time points throughout the day (recommended to choose at least as many time points as people in their group), and consider in more detail what the animal is experiencing at each of these time points including: • What activities are/ is the animal doing/engaged in (e.g., feeding)?
Prompt the group to think in terms of the five domains. Often people will focus on tangible things like food and water. Try to also ensure that other activities are also covered, for example free time, rest, social contact. Refer to the five domains of animal welfare visual aid if available to support their discussion.
• What are the frequency and duration of these activities/experiences? • How does each activity/experience make the animal feel (e.g., experiencing pleasurable tastes) and influence the animal’s mental state?
Some people find it easier to reflect on how they would feel in that situation. So, for example discussing quality rest – you could ask, “how do you feel when you don’t sleep well? Can you sleep when it is very noisy around? Has anyone ever been prevented from sleeping because they were worried about something (that was going to happen to them the next day)?”
Step 5
Next, bring the groups together and ask them to give a short introduction to their chosen animal’s day to the whole group. Each person in the group can present at least one time point so that between them they cover the full day.
Next, facilitate a discussion using the points below as a discussion guide: • Probe for more details on their animals’ daily experiences/activities where appropriate and needed to encourage them to think about and identify the nature of these experiences in terms of whether they may be positive or negative where this may not yet be clear.
For example, with rest, can the animals move freely? Are they restrained up next to someone or something they don’t like or fear? Are they restrained so that they cannot relax properly and achieve good quality rest? Is the environment noisy, preventing them from sleeping? How do their rest patterns align with their natural needs?
• Discuss whether an activity and/or experience is truly positive or whether it reflects an alleviation of a negative experience. For example, providing water to a dehydrated animal is alleviating a negative experience, whereas play is (most likely) a positive experience. - As negative and positive experiences are not always the direct opposite of each other, it is important to discuss them separately e.g., is the experience negative or not; is the experience positive or not.
• Encourage discussion of how the frequency, duration, and intensity of experiences differ, and how this can impact an animal’s quality of life.
For example, if an animal is wounded in an accident, this may be a very intense experience and painful at the time. However, if the animal is in a secure environment and receives prompt and effective treatment, then the negative experience will be lasting. However, if the animal does not receive treatment, then the negative experience will last longer. Even if the injury is minor and the pain experienced is not initially intense, if left untreated the pain will increase, and the animal may need to be active or work with the painful injury or be unable to rest properly if in pain. These experiences will accumulate, making the overall balance of these experiences will be negative, and lower the animals’ resilience to other negative experiences. In this example, a short but high intensity experience may have less impact on the balance of experiences than a less intense but longer lasting experience.
• Ask what opportunities are provided for their animal to experience comfort, pleasure, interest, confidence, and the ability to make choices and feel a sense of being in control? - For example, if they are provided with shelter, do they have the choice about when to enter the shelter and when to remain outside, allowing them to adjust for their thermal comfort and security (e.g., some animals, such as horses, may feel very trapped in a shelter, whereas other animals, such as dogs, may feel a lot safer within a shelter than outside).
• Based on this discussion, where do you believe your animal sits on the balance of life experiences scale and why? (Refer to the balance of life experience visual aid if available)
Once concluded, summarize their discussion in terms of the following points: • Key points in the animal’s day (e.g., rest, work, eat, drink, are tied up (movement restricted), roam freely). • The range of their animals’ experiences and feelings. • How animals’ feelings would change if experiences were very frequent or very prolonged. • Highlight where the animal sits on the balance of life experiences scale and why.
Step 6
Next use the following questions to encourage participants to reflect and learn from the activity:
• Was there anything that surprised you? • What did you learn from this activity? • How representative do you think this is of your other animals/animal in the community? • Is there anything that you think you could do differently in the future to improve your animal’s quality of life based on your learnings from this activity?
Encourage them to identify and/or draw attention to the positive aspects of what they already do as a means to promote reflection and learning and motivation to do more of what is already feasible for them, rather than focusing on what they can’t.
Step 7
Finally, draw the activity to a conclusion using the following points: • Reflect on the original aims and purpose of the activity and draw conclusions relevant to these • Highlight key reflections about what participants learned doing this activity. • Summarize what the group concluded they could do to minimise negative experiences and/or increase positive experiences in their animals’ lives.
T18b: The Life of an Animal
The life of an animal
Step 1
If doing this exercise in a separate session from the day in a life activity, begin with Step 1 and 2 from the “A day in the Life of an Animal” activity above first.
If conducting this activity in the same session following completion of the day in the life activity, skip to step 2 below.
Step 2
Explain they will be mapping their animal’s experiences over the course of the animal’s lifetime and ask them to decide how they wish to represent the lifetime of their animal’s life cycle visually e.g., table, circle, list, timeline.
Then ask each group to identify the major life cycles/stages/time points of their animal, and plot these in accordance with how they decided to represent the animal’s lifetime. Encourage them to identify at least as many life events as people in their group, ensuring they include consideration of the animal’s life cycle from birth, growth, reproduction, working up to end of life as well.
Step 3
Once the life stages/time points of their animal are identified in step 2, ask each group to explore in more detail what the animal is experiencing at each stage, you can use the following to guide the discussions:
• What activities are some of the activities the animal is doing/engaged in at each stage (e.g., working, breeding)?
Prompt the group to think in terms of the five domains for the life cycle/stage of the animal they have picked to focus on. Often people will focus on tangible things like food and water. Try to also ensure that other activities are also covered, for example free time, rest, social contact. Refer to the five domains of animal welfare visual aid if available to support their discussion. • What are the frequency and duration of these activities/experiences? • How does each activity/experience make the animal feel (e.g., experiencing pleasurable tastes, experiencing positive human-animal interactions, experiencing and exhibiting positive natural behaviours, etc.) and influence the animal’s mental state?
Some people find it easier to reflect on how they would feel in that situation. So, for example discussing quality rest – you could ask, “how do you feel when you don’t sleep well? Can you sleep when it is very noisy around? Has anyone ever been prevented from sleeping because they were worried about something (that was going to happen to them the next day)?”
Explore the different life stages in more detail considering what the animal is experiencing at each stage. Details to be discussed should consider both the activity (e.g., weaning) and the associated mental state (e.g., distress/fear/panic if forcibly weaned and put in isolation). • What are the frequency and duration of these life experiences? • How does each experience make the animal feel (e.g., experiencing pleasurable tastes, experiencing positive human-animal interactions, experiencing and exhibiting positive natural behaviours, etc.) and influence the animal’s mental state?
Some people find it easier to reflect on how they would feel in that situation. So, for example discussing being separated from other animals and kept alone – you could ask, “how do you feel when you are isolated from friends and family? Has anyone ever been prevented from socializing with your network of support?”
Step 4
After discussion, bring the groups together and ask them to present the lifetime of their animals to the whole group. Each person in the groups should present at least one time point/life stage, which between them covers the entire lifespan. Encourage discussion of how the animal’s welfare changes over their lifetime using the guiding questions below, and encourage a process of reflecting on the exercise, generalising, and application. Conclude where this animal sits on the Balance of Life Experiences chart.
Step 5
Once finished, summarize key reflections and learnings from discussions including:
• Key points in the animal’s life (e.g., birth, early life, weaning, working/productive life, ownership changes, end of life). • The range of experiences and feelings, and how these change over time. • How quality of life is impacted by experiences that are very frequent or very long. key reflections and what people discovered by participating in this exercise. • What the group concluded they could do to minimise negative and add more positive experiences, including any immediate actions vs longer term changes needed.
Conclude by reflecting on the original aims and purpose of the exercise and draw conclusions relevant to these, and ensure concluding reflections highlight where the animal sits on the balance of life experiences scale and why.
Facilitator's Notes
Preparatory work (things to consider before the exercise):
It is important that participants have been socialized in the concepts of the five domains of animal welfare and balance of quality life experiences prior to beginning this activity. If they have not yet had an introduction to these concepts, you will need to build in more time to introduce these concepts in advance.
Consider your target audience (community, community facilitators) for this exercise.
Establish your motivations and goals for doing this exercise with that group of participants.
Based on this, decide whether you will run both activities and only run one of the activities.
Establish what species/animals are you are likely to, or need to, discuss and why (consider whether there is benefit of having same species groups e.g., equid owners).
Do you feel confident with the application of this task to those species? Do you feel confident discussing the range of positive and negative experiences for the different animal species that you may be discussing during the exercise? Do you need to seek some further support or clarification?
Consider a manageable group size (too small may produce too little discussion, too big may result in too much variation, debate, or not enabling everyone to participate fully).
Be prepared with information to respond to how a community views the animal experiences. We suggest that in advance of the session you have a list of ‘red flags’ – practices that are very dangerous to welfare and need an immediate response – and an idea of what the ideal situation would look like, so that you are clear on what you can praise/want to see.
Consider how you may capture these results with literate and illiterate groups (use photo to capture if they have used different symbols to represent the life of an animal)
In this tool it is important to focus on increasing opportunities for positive experiences, and not only opportunities for reducing negative experiences.
for “The life of an animal” activity, the following suggestions also apply:
Consider how the community/culture would most likely break down the life of an animal e.g., by age, by life event, and work with them to establish the best way of doing this. Ensure that all the critical stages/life cycles from birth to end of life are captured in the discussion even though the classification might vary.
Be prepared to challenge or fill in gaps of key life stages that may be missed.
Next Steps
This exercise may be used to improve communities understanding of how experiences can impact on an animal, promote understanding of the concept of animal welfare generally, and/or as a precursor to community action planning by helping to generate discussion and ideas about how community members can provide more opportunities for their animals to have more positive life experiences and a greater sense of control choice and feeling of control. Next steps will therefore vary depending on your intended objectives of use of this tool, and in what project phase you are implementing it. Think about how the information or outcomes generated from this activity may be used or help inform your next steps. You may also wish to consider whether they can serve as an indicator of change which you may wish to assess again later. (Although if this uncovers incidents of welfare practices that are unacceptable then the facilitators should explore using the available resources within this guide how to address them).
![Figure 12: The "Five Domains" model for assessing animal welfare [2]](https://communitiesforanimals.thebrooke.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/A1-Welfare-English-version.png)
![Figure 13: Examples of positive and negative experiences within the Five Domains framework [7]](https://communitiesforanimals.thebrooke.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/A3-Domains-Positive-and-Negative-English-ver.png)
![Figure 21: Visualizing the concept of One Health [12]](https://communitiesforanimals.thebrooke.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/A12-OneHealth-Complete-400x374.png)
