This activity provides a visual representation of a savings and loaning groups’ overall status, including the reasons for lending or borrowing money between members of a savings and loaning group. The group’s savings fund or common contributions are lent (inter-loaned) for various purposes, such as buying animal feed, paying for service provision, equipment repair and maintenance, purchase of additional animals and other household needs. Reasons for taking loans may have been identified previously through tools such as T13 income, expenditure and credit analysis and may be reviewed in their community action plan if necessary.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To support a community savings group to understand their financial strength, status and potential for long-term sustainability of group savings and loaning activities. • To assess and/or monitor how group savings and loans are being used to improve animal welfare and the lives of animal-owning households. • To give an indication of loan repayments and promote accountability amongst members. • To identify opportunities for additional and/or collective income-generating activities. • To compare changes in how loans are being used (base line to end line).
2 hours
Materials needed:
Materials needed: Chart paper and markers, post-its, cards or any other local materials
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools, Monitoring and Evaluation
Specific Topics: Vulnerability / Resilience, Livelihoods, Group Formation / Strengthening
Group inter-loaning analysis
This exercise is used to assess the present status of group members’ loan repayments, thereby providing a social accountability mechanism which encourages group members to repay their loans to the group fund as originally agreed between group members.
Information gained from this activity can help participants decide where collective spending might save them money and therefore reduce their need to borrow from the fund. For example, if many group members are borrowing money to buy animal feed, a common fund could be used to buy animal feed in bulk. The group may wish to arrange vaccinations for all community animals at the same time for a reduced fee or buy resources together in bulk.
Figure T14a Group inter-loaning analysis (template)
Figure T14b Group inter-loaning analysis (sectioned)
Figure T14c Group inter-loaning analysis completed by a community
A savings group analysed the use of money lent from their common savings fund. All members of the group had taken a loan at some point. The circle rings represents:
Name of group members: Individual names of people who have an outstanding loan
Purpose of loan: The reason for taking the loan
Loan amount: Original loan amount and the repayment terms (months to repay)
Status: the amount still owing and number of months left to repay
In this savings group, most loans were taken by group members to buy animal feed. This exercise helped the group discuss where they could take action collectively for their animals, such as buying feed in bulk at a discounted price.
Group Inter-Loaning Analysis
Step 1
Take time at the beginning of the exercise to have an in-depth discussion on the group’s general activities and different projects that they work on together. This will act like an icebreaker and help participants feel more comfortable and willing to share freely before beginning any type of discussion on money or finances.
Slowly transition the discussion to focus on financial activities and on inter-loaning.
Step 2
Ask the community helper to draw a small centre in the middle of a piece of chart paper that will represent the group and label it with the group name. Then, have the helper draw four big circles around the centre circle (see figure T14a).
Ask the group generally for what purpose they take loans from the savings group.
Please note: From here, the conversation will move to the individual level, so ask the group if they feel comfortable with this and give consent to sharing individually. Assure them that the discussion will be kept confidential and that it is for the purpose group learning. Also, advise them that they are not obligated to participate if they do not feel comfortable. You can also mention that this tool has potential to be used to monitor individual progress over time, or to improve or strengthen group loaning activities.
Ask members with active loans who would like to volunteer to participate in the activity. Try to have between 6-10 participants. Remind them that this is not an individual analysis, but a group analysis. The facilitator should try to ensure that there is diversity amongst the loan purposes.
Step 3
Ask participants to write their names on separate cards or to identify themselves using different symbols. Put a card on the outside circle labelled ‘name’. Arrange the cards representing each person who has taken a loan around the outside edge of the circle. Then, have the community helper divide the circle into segments according to how many participant names are along the outer circle (e.g. 11 segments for 11 participants) (see figure T14b).
Ask participants about the purpose of their loan and have the helper write the purpose on a card. Put a card on the second outer ring labelled ‘purpose’. Add the card representing the purpose in line with the person’s name.
Ask participants about the loan amounts taken and repayment periods. Have participants write the amount and period (e.g. 2,000 / 24 months) on a card. Have the community helper put a post-it on the third outer circle labelled ‘amount & period’. Add the cards representing the amount & period in line with each participant’s segment.
Finally, ask participants about the loan balances and remaining repayment periods. Have participants write the loan balance and remaining repayment period (e.g. 500 / 2 months) on a card. Have the community helper place the card on the remaining circle labelled ‘loan statuses. Add the cards representing the loan status in line with each participant’s segment.
Step 4
Once the chart is complete, ask the group about their general observations of the final chart.
Depending on their responses, you might probe further into the terms and conditions or rules and regulations of the savings group.
Guiding questions might include:
• What are the criteria for a group member qualifying for loans? (rules & regulations governing group loans) • If defaulting has been identified, ask: what are the reasons for defaulting on loan payments? Ask for a few personal examples. • If defaulting has not been identified, ask participants whether any members have ever defaulted and why? • Are they comfortable with the rules and the terms? If no, what changes are possible? • Has there been a time when a group member needed a loan, and the group was unable to provide it? If yes, why? - What did they do about it individually or as a group? • What strategies are the group currently undertaking to increase their savings and loaning capacity? - What could they do to increase the amounts available for loaning as a group?
Step 5
At the end of the exercise, ask the group to summarise their findings:
• Highlight how animals have benefited from the group’s inter-loaning activities. For example, loans taken for: - Animal treatments and health care - Purchasing feed and fodder - Seeking health or welfare service - Materials to build a shelter
• How animals could benefit from inter-loaning activities. • How members have benefited from initiating income-generating activities individually or as a group.
After this discussion, ask participants what actions they can take from the analysis. Have the community helper record the actions and any specific activities in the community action plan. Make sure to include who will monitor it and a realistic timeline. Support the community by linking them to any necessary stakeholders. Add the outputs of this activity to your project action tracker and any action points to follow up on.
Facilitation Notes
This exercise is ideal for a community-based group of animal owners that has been operating for at least one year, with members making regular contributions to a common savings fund and accessing group loans.
Consider removing the individual names from the outside of the circle and replacing them with symbols or numbers to make those who volunteered feel more comfortable and willing to share during the analysis.
It is best to do this exercise without referring to the group’s register or ledger of savings and loans. If any queries arise, look at the register together at the end of the exercise and make changes to the chart then if needed.
Encourage each group member to tell you about their loan amounts themselves. Discourage one particular member or group leader from leading the exercise and talking about or for the other members.
Next Steps
Revisit the actions and activities in your project action tracker in the next meeting to monitor their progress and what further support is required.
Repeat the inter-loaning analysis annually to assess changes and promote accountability amongst members.
If conducted in the exit and evaluation phase and results of the activity have shown that the savings and loaning group is well-functioning, consider carrying out a sustainability mapping exercise to help the group determine whether they can continue without help from the facilitating organization.
This Behaviour Change/Com-B Diagnosis Community Question Guide is recommended to be used as a framework to understand the COM-B components sufficiently to enable community facilitators rely on their own critical thinking and effective facilitation skills to identify what community members need in order to enact a target behaviour in terms of capability,motivation, and opportunities (COM-B). Overly adhering to these examples questions is not recommended. Facilitators are encouraged create their own contextually appropriate questions to ask to diagnose what needs to change when conducting a COM-B diagnosis in discussion with community members. Select or adapt example questions from this resource only as needed to support your exploration of barriers to change in consultation with communities.
The example questions relevant to the six subcomponents of COM-B outlined in the table below reflect the different Theoretical Domains associated with each COM-B subcomponent. These are just example questions and are not all necessary to ask during a COM-B analysis, as this would prove too time consuming. Rather, they reflect examples of questions that may be helpful to determining what someone may need in order to enact a desired target behaviour (in terms of COM-B). They are not prescriptive or exhaustive, but rather are intended to provide community facilitators with a sense of what each COM-B component means.
When conducting a COM-B diagnosis with communities, it is common for responses to questions to be relevant to more than one COM-B subcomponent. It is therefore helpful to take some time to carefully review responses after discussions are held, and organize or code them in terms of their relevance to the different COM-B subcomponents. Responses can not only help identify the COM-B barriers to behaviour change, they can also identify factors that could potentially enable or motivate desired behaviour change which may useful for projects to consider in their behaviour change planning.
The COM-B diagnosis of what needs to change for a desired behaviour to be adopted can then be used to identify the type of interventions and behaviour change techniques most likely to be effective in addressing the identified COM-B barriers to behaviour change. Using the Behaviour Change Wheel is recommended to support this process as it provides an evidence-based framework for identifying the types of interventions and behaviour change techniques evidenced within behaviour change science to be most effective in addressing different COM-B barriers to change [21]. Refer to the facilitator resource 13. Guidance on Identifying Effective Behaviour Change Strategies Based on COM-B Diagnosis for further guidance.
Table of Example Questions Supporting COM-B Diagnosis
COM-B Drivers
Example Questions Supporting COM-B Diagnosis Associated with the Theoretical Domains
Capability: Physical
Physical Skills: (Domain Definition: an ability or proficiency acquired through practice; skills, skills development, ability, interpersonal skills, practice, skills assessment)
• What skills do you think are required to be able to do [specify desired behaviour]? • Do you know how to [specify desired behaviour]? • How competent do you feel in doing [specify target behaviour]? • Have you practiced the [specify the desired behaviour]? • Can you think of any ways in which your own skills for doing [specify desired behaviour] could be improved? • Given your existing skills and (physical) strength, how easy or difficult would you find doing [specify desired behaviour]? • How/where can you receive training learn how to [specify the desired behaviour]? (responses may relate to psychological capability, and/or physical or social opportunity) • Do you have the skills to work with others as needed to undertake [specify target behaviour]?
Capability: Psychological
Knowledge (Domain Definition: an awareness of the existence of something; including knowledge of condition/scientific rationale, procedural knowledge, knowledge of task environment):
• How do you know/are you able recognize when [specify targeted animal welfare issue] is distressing the animal/needs to be addressed? • Can you tell me about what causes [specify targeted animal welfare issue]? • What does your animal need for [specify targeted animal welfare issue] to be improved/resolved? • What do you think about [specify desired behaviour] being recommended to address [specify targeted animal welfare issue]/Do you know why [specify desired behaviour] is recommended? • What do you know about/ How familiar are you with [specify desired behaviour required]? Do you feel you need any more knowledge in order to be able to address [specify animal welfare issue] or to adopt/practice [specify desired behaviour]? PROBE: what has prevented you from becoming knowledgeable in the ways you feel would be needed? Are there adequate opportunities to practice [specify desired behaviour] so you feel confident and competent in doing it?
Memory, Attention, and Decision Processes (Domain Definition: ability to retain information, focus selectively on aspects of the environment and choose between two or more alternatives, memory, attention, attention control, decision making, cognitive overload/tiredness):
• Is doing [specify desired behaviour] in the [specify context and desired timing/frequency of desired behaviour as applicable] something you would normally do? If no, why not? If yes, what helped you decide to do it? • Is doing [specify target behaviour] something you think you would likely often forget? • If you are likely to forget doing [specify target behaviour], what do you think would help you to remember? • What do you think will help you to stop doing [specify undesired behaviour]? (responses may be relevant to other domains) • What would stop you from doing [specify desired behaviour] in the [specify context and desired timing/frequency of desired behaviour as applicable]? (responses may be relevant to other domains) • How much attention do you think you will need invest/pay to do [specify target behaviour]? /How much cognitive power is needed to do [specify target behaviour]…is it affected by tiredness or other factors (please explain)? • What could influence your decision to do [specify target behaviour]? If no, why not? (responses may be related to other domains)
Behavioural Regulation (Domain Definition: anything aimed at managing or changing behaviour e.g. self-monitoring; breaking habit; action planning):
• Will doing [specify target behaviour] require breaking any well-formed habits? Please explain any existing habits by telling me more about what triggers you to initiate the current habitual behaviour (e.g. internal or external cues), and what you do in response to those cues (e.g. physical, mental and/or emotional responses to cues), and what reward or benefit you experience as a result which keeps you doing this habitual practice (e.g. why this habit/way of doing things is worth it)? • Are there things that would help to prompt you to do [specify desired behaviour]? • What would need to happen for you to do this [specify desired behaviour] as recommended to address the [specify targeted animal welfare issue]? • Are there particular groups of people for whom doing [specify desired behaviour] is more difficult? Please explain your response, what makes it more difficult for these groups in comparison to others? • To what extent do you feel that self-monitoring of your behaviours would be needed to do [specify target behaviour]?
Opportunity: Physical
Environmental Context and Resources (Domain Definition: Any circumstance of a person’s situation or environment that discourages or encourages a behaviour; includes: environmental stressors, resources, enabling culture/climate, salient events/critical incidents, interaction between person and their environment, barriers and facilitators):
• What materials or services are needed for you to be able to practice [specify desired behaviour] in [specify context behaviour occurs] [specify desired timing/frequency of behaviour]? • What things make it easy for you to practice [specify desired behaviour] in [specify context behaviour occurs] [specify desired timing/frequency of behaviour]? • What things make it difficult for you to practice [specify desired behaviour] in [specify context behaviour occurs] [specify desired timing/frequency of behaviour]? Prompt as needed e.g. access and availability of resources, finances, time? • How difficult is it to get/obtain [list any known resources/services/support needed for practicing the desired behaviour]? • Are there competing tasks and time constraints which may affect your ability to do [specify target behaviour]? Please specify. • To what extent does access or availability of any resources/services affect your ability to [specify target behaviour]? • Is doing or not doing [specify target behaviour] associated with or interrupted by critical incidences or events? • Are there accessibility factors or environmental influences that change the likelihood of [specify target behaviour]? • Are there other barriers and facilitators to doing [specify target behaviour]? (responses may be related to other domains)
Opportunity: Social
Social Influences(Domain Definition: interpersonal processes that can cause individuals to change their thoughts, feelings, or behaviours; includes: social pressure; social/cultural norms; group conformity, social comparisons, social support; power; intergroup conflict; group identity, and/or modelling):
• What pressures do you face from others to do or not do [specify target behaviour]? • Is there anyone that would disapprove of you or make it challenging for you to do [specify target behaviour]? Please describe how they, or your relationship with them, would make it difficult? • How important/not important do the people important to you think it is to do [specify desired behaviour]/address [specify target animal welfare issue]? Please explain why they may think this. • How would the people that you live and socialise with help you do [specify desired behaviour] in [specify context behaviour occurs] [specify desired timing/frequency of behaviour]? Prompt as needed: family, peers, social groups. • How do the people that you live and socialise with make it difficult for you to do [specify desired behaviour]? Prompt as needed: family, peers, social groups • Who do you see people around you doing [specify desired behaviour]; and if yes, how does this influence you? • Are there any cultural, traditional, or community beliefs or values which would make [specify target behaviour] less socially acceptable or challenging to adopt? • Are there any power dynamics or social norms within your community or household which would affect whether you can do [specify target behaviour]?
Motivation: Automatic
Reinforcement (Domain Definition: Increasing the probability of a response by arranging a dependent relationship, or contingency between the response and a given stimulus; includes: rewards, incentives; punishment, consequences, reinforcement, contingents, sanctions etc. which increase the probability of a particular behaviour):
• How easy or difficult do you think it would be to remember to [specify target behaviour] in [specify context behaviour occurs] every time you need to do it/ [specify desired timing/frequency of behaviour]? e.g., very difficult, somewhat difficult, or not difficult at all? Please explain your answer/why you feel this way. • What are the incentives for you to change from current practice to [specify desired behaviour], and how likely do you feel these benefits rewards are? • What evidence do you have that doing [specify target behaviour] would be a good thing? • What are the costs or consequences of not doing [specify target behaviour]? (Responses may also be relevant to Reflective Motivation/Beliefs about Consequences Domain) • What punishments or sanctions may be experienced/imposed for doing [specify target behaviour]?
Emotion(Domain Definition: positive or negative feelings which can encourage or discourage a particular behaviour; includes: fear, anxiety, stress, depression, positive/negative affect):
• When you can care for your animal and meet its needs, how does it make you feel? • When thinking about changing your practices to [specify target behaviour], how does this make you feel? Is this likely to cause you any anxiety, stress, burn out, or other any other positive or negative emotions? Please explain why you would feel this way?
Motivation: Reflective
Social/Professional Role and Identity (Domain Definition: coherent set of behaviours and displayed personal qualities of an individual in a social or work setting; includes: personal, social and group identify, professional identify, roles boundaries, and confidence, leadership/management/business clients):
• Is doing [specify desired behaviour] compatible or in conflict with [specify professional identity/standard]? • What do you feel about the credibility of the source of the recommendation/guidance about doing [specify target behaviour] to improve [specify animal welfare issue]? • Do you feel [specify target behaviour] is aligned with what others in their social or professional group/network are going (e.g. other households, animal owners/carers, animal breeders/producers, animal cart drivers etc.)? • To what extent do leaders/managers/clientele facilitate people’s adoption of [specify desired behaviour]? • To what extent are leaders/managers/clients willing to listen problems associated with [specify animal welfare issue] and [specify target behaviour] recommended to address it? (select the subject of question as appropriate to context of behaviour)
Belief About Capabilities(Domain Definition: self-confidence; perceived competence or ability which can; includes: perceived competence, self-efficacy, perceived behavioural control, beliefs, self-esteem, empowerment, confidence)
• How confident do you feel in your ability to [specify desired action] in [specify context behaviour occurs] and [specify desired timing/frequency of behaviour]? PROBE: - if confidence low: what would make you feel more confident? Is there anything that would increase your confidence? - if not doing it: how confident are you that you could change to doing [specify desired behaviour]? - if already doing it: how confident are you in maintaining or enhancing your existing practice? • How well equipped are you to do make this change and do [specify desired behaviour]? • Have you had (or do you envision) any problems/experienced any challenges trying do [specify desired behaviour]? / What makes it/would make it difficult for you to [specify target behaviour]? Why does this/do these make it difficult? What would make it easier? • Do you think you could carry on doing the [specify desired behaviour] in [specify context behaviour occurs] [specify timing/frequency of behaviour] if you started? Why or why not?
Optimism (Domain Definition: confidence things will happen for the best or that desired goals will be attained; includes; optimism, pessimism, unrealistic optimism, identify)
• Are you optimistic or pessimistic about the outcome of [specify target behaviour]/resolving {specify welfare issue]? Please explain your rationale.
Intentions (Domain Definition: conscious decision to perform a behaviour/resolve to act; includes: stability/strength of intentions, stages of change)
• How much do you want to take action to resolve [specify targeted animal welfare issue] by adopting [specify desired behaviour]? • Do you intend to do {specify target behaviour] consistently over time? Please explain your rationale.
Goals(Domain Definition: Mental representations of outcomes an individual wants to achieve; includes: goals (distal/proximal), goal priority, goal/target setting. goals (autonomous/controlled), action planning implementation intention) • Are there goals set in the immediate or distant future related addressing [specify targeted animal welfare issue]? • How important are achieving goals associated with doing [specify target behaviour]/improving [specify target animal welfare issue]? • Are there other things that you want to achieve that could interfere with, or that you think are more important than doing the [specify desired behaviour]? • How much do you feel you need to do [specify target behaviour]? • Has a plan been put in action to do [specify target behaviour] to address [specify target animal welfare issue]?
Beliefs about Consequences (Domain Definition: beliefs; outcome expectancies; characteristics of outcome expectancies; anticipated regret; consequents; includes: beliefs, outcome expectancies, characteristics of outcome expectancies, anticipate regret, consequents)
• What do you think will happen if you do [specify desired behaviour] to address [specify targeted animal welfare issue]? • Do you believe doing [specify target behaviour] is useful? Please explain why or why not? (responses may be relevant to Automatic Motivation/Reinforcement Domain) • What do you think are the advantages or benefits of [specify desired behaviour] for a) you? and b) your animal? (responses may be relevant to Automatic Motivation/Reinforcement Domain) • What do you think are the costs or consequences of adopting [specify desired behaviour] for a) you and b) your animal? (responses may be relevant to Automatic Motivation/Reinforcement Domain) • In your opinion, do the benefits of adopting [specify target behaviour] outweigh the costs/consequences? (responses may be relevant to Automatic Motivation/Reinforcement Domain) Do you feel you may regret doing [specify target behaviour]? Please explain your rationale.
General
• Is there anything else that you would like to add about what may encourage or discourage someone from being able to do [specify desired behaviour]? • Are there any other factors that you think might be important to consider about [specify desired behaviour] or [specify animal welfare issue] that we haven’t covered?
Questions Examples Adapted from [108, 21, 109, 110]
Facilitation Notes
When developing/asking COM-B diagnosis questions, ensure you:
Frame questions to be open-ended (e.g. not yes/no)
Focus questions on the target behaviour;
Ask additional probing questions as needed to elicit details; and
Include questions on only the TDF domains that may be relevant to your target behaviour and project context.
It will be important to first ensure there is sufficient rapport with respondents before initiating in-depth questioning about the specific target behaviour. Discussions should begin with some general greetings and introduction, and/or initial engaging background questions rather than starting with the COM-B diagnosis questions.
The order/layout of the questions in the table above DO NOT represent the most logical order they should be asked but rather simply lay out examples of the types of questions which may be appropriate to ask to assess barriers and motivators to practicing the desired behaviour. It is the role of the facilitator to ensure questioning does not feel like an interrogation and gauge the order in which they should be asked which create a natural, and logical flow to the conversation. Facilitators are encouraged to lay out their selected questions in an order which they feel would be most natural and logical, and should remain flexible to adapting the order as responses when it makes sense to do so e.g. if certain questions would seem to be logical follow up questions to maintain the natural progression of the discussion.
It is essential facilitators do not solely follow a prescriptive line of pre-prepared questions, and are properly skilled to facilitate these discussions and ask follow up questions as needed to more deeply probe community members’ responses to gain clarity on the true nature of the barriers and motivators to the adoption of the desired target behaviour.
Not all domains and questions may be relevant to the target behaviour and context in which you are working. Adapt and create additional questions as needed to explore the general behavioural domains above as needed for the specific target behaviour. The questions you decide to ask/determine to be relevant to understanding what needs to change to support adoption of the target behaviour, and how you ask them, will depend on the desired target behaviour, who is being targeted to adopt it, your understanding of the local context and what is appropriate to ask and how best to frame the questions, as well as the nature of the welfare issue and characteristics of the target animal (e.g. species, age, size, use, activity level, and reproductive and health status)..
As there may be many identified domains of behaviour and associated questions to explore to understand barriers and motivators to behaviour change, you may need to schedule more than one session with targeted respondents before fully understanding the COM-B barriers and motivators to change.
While these questions are organized in terms of COM-B drivers and their associated theoretical domains, responses to questions associated with a particular driver/domain will often provide information relevant to other or multiple COM-B sub-components. It is the responsibility of the facilitator to assess the nature of responses and their intended meaning within a given context, and categorize it in accordance with the appropriate COM-B driver to them as you feel appropriate. For this reason,
It is recommended to use an audio recording device to record responses with the consent of participants, or to take detailed notes of discussions to enable you to refer to them for better understanding of participants’ insights.
Recording conversations enables you to focus on asking open ended questions, listening, and exploring different topics without having capture detailed responses in writing. Listening back to recordings helps ensure critical information is not missed from interviews and allows you take your time when organizing/coding responses in terms of their relevance to different COM-B subcomponents.
Consider creating a table or document template to help organize responses in terms of the six COM-B drivers pertinent barriers and motivators to change related to which can be used to identify what needs to change, and related intervention functions and behaviour change techniques using the Behaviour Change Wheel during behaviour change project planning.
When time and resources are constrained for conducting a COM-B diagnosis with communities, consider conducting the COM-B diagnosis with a few representative key informants or focus groups representative of target groups. Project teams can also use these questions to help ensure they have thought through the potential barriers to change when planning behaviour change interventions; however it always recommended that their assumptions be checked and any gaps in their knowledge explored in discussion with communities.
It is recommended to explore barriers and motivators to adoption of a desired behaviour through discussion with community members/groups targeted to adopt the desired behaviour, as well as with other key stakeholders with knowledge and experience of community members and their potential barriers and motivators to change e.g. service providers, change agents, spouses etc. This triangulation of data can be helpful to gaining a full understanding of the barriers to change, which may not necessarily become apparent from responses of only one group of people/perspective.
Depending on who is targeted to adopt a desired behaviour, consider conducting a COM-B diagnosis separately with different representative groups to ensure you understand potential differences in their perceived barriers to change e.g. men, women, urban vs. rural community members, marginalized groups. This is important because barriers to change may differ depending on the intersecting social characteristics and realities different groups face, and may require different interventions and behaviour change techniques be used to support different groups in adopting the same target behaviour.
While the example questions provided in this guide can be used to conduct a COM-B diagnosis, barriers and motivators to change informing COM-B diagnosis can also be identified through insights gathered through use of other participatory tools or community engagement activities.
This PLA may be conducted to explore the potential benefits, risks and affordability of different practices to enable participants to thoroughly examine the implications of their choices for more informed decision-making. This tool includes step-by-step guidance for three different versions, including:
This tool explores the potential benefits, risks, and affordability of adopting different animal welfare-related practices to both people and their animals, thereby enabling participants to thoroughly examine the implications of their choices for more informed decision making. By promoting understanding of the benefits of changing their behaviours or practices to improve animal welfare, along with the costs and effects of existing practices, this exercise promotes animal welfare improvements by generating motivation and commitment to change, and identifies opportunities for reducing costs through collective action.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To promote understanding of the potential effects/costs and benefits of improving animal welfare practices for both animals and people. • To motivate participants to adopt new practices, either independently or collectively, to improve the welfare of their animals. • To identify ways to reduce costs of adopting new practices to improve animal welfare through collective group action.
2 hours
Materials needed:
Chart paper, index cards or sticky notes, pens/markers, chalk and/or locally available materials
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools
Specific Topics: Animal Husbandry and Management Practices, Livelihoods, Group Formation / Strengthening
Cost-benefit analysis of animal welfare practices
This exercise facilitates assessment of the costs and benefits of adopting different animal husbandry and management practices such as: feeding and watering, sheltering, humane handling, freedom of movement/no hobbling, allowing animals to socialize together, grooming, using welfare friendly equipment etc.
In the example below, animal-owning participants assessed the costs and benefits of adopting animal welfare practices that were previously identified as gaps during the T21 Animal Welfare Practice Gap Analysis.
T15a Cost-benefit analysis of improved animal welfare practices
The above example was produced by a group of animal-owners in a brick kiln community in Pakistan who identified lack of provision of balanced feed as an animal welfare practice gap.
Through discussions, the group identified the following as key learnings:
A balanced ration can be purchased by spending only Rs 50 more per day individually
Keeping the animal healthy is not only important for the health and wellbeing of the animal, but also for the family
Through discussions, the group identified the following possible solutions:
A few people decided that they would add maize to their regular feed ration
The group agreed to explore purchasing feed in bulk because it will save time and they can purchase it collectively at a reduced cost
Cost-benefit Analysis of Animal Welfare Practices
Step 1
Before undertaking this activity, identify key behaviours necessary for improving animal welfare that have been difficult to change amongst the community. For this exercise, have the community select only one hard to change behaviour for analysis at a time, where low motivation and/or high costs have been identified as hindering adoption.
Step 2
Start by drawing a matrix and write the difficult behaviour selected in step 1 in the top row. Ask a community helper to assist in creating the matrix if time and capacity permits.
Step 3
Start the discussion by asking the group to identify the perceived costs of adopting the practice, in terms of money, time and labour. Allow the community to identify the costs important to them without leading them and have the community helper write the costs on cards using words or symbols and place them in the matrix.
Step 4
Once the costs of adopting the new practice is identified, ask participants to specify the benefits to the animal. After the benefits to the animal are identified, ask participants to identify the benefits to the household and have the community helper write the benefits on cards using words or symbols and place them in the matrix.
Step 5
Once the matrix is complete for adopting the new practice, ask participants to identify the effects/costs on the animal if the new practice is not adopted. After these effects/costs to the animal are identified, ask them to identify any effects/costs on the household. Have the community helper write the effects/costs on cards using words or symbols and place them in the matrix.
Step 6
Once the matrix is complete, review it with participants to assess the costs and benefits of adopting the new practice. The following guiding questions may be used to facilitate the discussion:
• What have you learned from this exercise? • What are possible solutions to reduce the negative impacts to animal welfare and your household, while also mitigating the potential costs to your household of adopting the new practice? (Either at household or group level) • Who needs to do what differently and how often?
Have the community helper document the key learnings and possible solutions from the discussions. Based on the discussion, prompt the group to decide on what actions they wish to take, any support needed and who will monitor. Add them to the community action plan.
Step 7
The matrix should be left with the community. A copy should be made for reference for future discussions and action planning. Add a copy to your project action tracker along with any identified needs for support or actions that need to be taken by the project. Make sure to add identified gaps in knowledge or understanding to your action tracker, as well as any plans to further sensitize animal-owning households in these areas.
Facilitator’s notes: Cost-benefit analysis of animal welfare practices
This tool is best conducted with participants who have already been introduced to concepts of animal welfare, understand animals’ needs and best practices. Consider using any or all of the following tools before undertaking a cost-benefit analysis. T19, T21, and T22 are particularly recommended, as reviewing their findings prior to this activity can help to identify the hard to change behaviours.
Make sure that participants consider more than just the financial costs when deciding whether to adopt any new practices.
It may be useful for professionals, such as vets or community animal health workers, to be present for this activity to advise on the animal welfare implications of any identified solutions. This will promote understanding of costs and benefits to animals and resolve any misconceptions about animal welfare issues and best practices.
Consider using any combination of writing, drawings, symbols or number scoring and/or locally available materials to represent costs and benefits identified to enable participants to understand and discuss the matrix once finalized.
When participants’ are considering the effects on the animal, encourage them to think about the physical, behavioural, mental/emotional state of the animal.
In contexts where male and female household members have different animal-related roles and responsibilities (e.g. ownership, care, use, financial decision making), conduct this activity with all household members who have key roles and responsibilities associated with the specific animal welfare practices being assessed and for which change is desired.
When new practices or behaviours are relatively easy to adopt with little risk or cost (e.g. grooming), it may be possible to assess more than a few behaviours in one session without overwhelming participants.
As changes in existing practices are achieved, and/or new priorities emerge, consider conducting this activity again to generate motivation for change in other animal welfare and management practices.
Next Steps
The following tools are recommended for use as a reflective learning exercise to understand whether any of the originally perceived costs and benefits were realized as a result of changes adopted to practices:
Participants may monitor animal-based welfare indicators to assess changes in animal welfare resulting from their changes in practice. Consider using animal-based welfare indicators developed in the following exercises:
T15b: Cost-Benefit Analysis - Prevention and Treatment of Animal Health Issues
This tool explores the potential benefits, risks, and affordability of preventing and treating animal health issues to both the animal and their owners, users and carers thereby enabling participants to thoroughly examine the implications of their choices for more informed decision making. By promoting understanding of the benefits of changing their behaviours or practices to improve animal welfare, along with the costs of inaction, this exercise can support animal welfare improvements by generating motivation and commitment to change, and identify opportunities for reducing costs through collective action.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• Promote understanding of the potential costs and benefits of preventing and/or treating animal health issues and effects of inaction for both animals and people. • To motivate participants to take action, either independently or collectively, to improve the health their animals. • Identify ways to reduce costs of adopting new practices to improve animal health through collective group action.
2-3 hours
Materials needed:
Chart paper, index cards or sticky notes, pens/markers, chalk, stones, pebbles, local materials (leaves, seeds, etc.)
Stages of Behaviour Change: Contemplation, Preparation Stage
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools
Specific Topics: Animal Health and Services, Livelihoods, Group Formation / Strengthening
Cost-benefit analysis of prevention and treatment of animal health issues
This version of the cost-benefit analysis promotes prevention and treatment of animal diseases or illnesses by assessing the costs and benefits of each to humans and animals, and potential effects if no action is taken. This activity can identify opportunities for collective action to reduce the costs associated with preventing and treating some animal health issues e.g. reduced rate group vaccinations.
In the example below, a cost-benefit analysis was conducted with an animal-owning group when prevention and treatment of animal illnesses were identified as a gaps in their welfare practices using the T21 animal welfare practice gap analysisexercise. The costs and benefits of prevention and treatment were assessed for the two highest priority illnesses previously identified by the community using the T8 pairwise ranking and scoring.
T15b Cost-benefit analysis of preventing and treating tetanus and colic
Cost-benefit analysis of prevention and treatment of animal health issues
Step 1
Before undertaking this activity, identify a priority disease or illness which has been difficult to encourage the community to adopt prevention or treatment measure. Consider reviewing findings from T1c Mapping - disease, T8 pairwise ranking and scoring or T9 matrix ranking and scoring to identify priority illnesses or diseases to analyse with the group. For this exercise, select only one disease to analyse at a time.
Step 2
Start by asking the community helper to draw a matrix and list ‘prevention’ and ‘treatment’ along top of the matrix.
Step 3
Ask participants about the main factors they consider when weighing the costs and benefits of preventing or treating the animal disease/illness being assessed. The group may add as many factors as they feel necessary.
The facilitator may probe the participants to consider the following factors if not initially identified, however factors should only be included which the participants use to inform their decision making:
• Cost of treatment/prevention • Disease/illness frequency • Severity • Prevention/treatment cost • Effectiveness • Loss of work/income due to animal illness (for working animals)
Ask the community helper to list identified factors in the first column of the matrix.
As a facilitator, ensure that the benefits to both animals and people are well represented by adding ‘benefits/effects on animal’ and ‘benefits/effects on household’ to the matrix once participants have identified the factors they consider when deciding whether to take preventative measures for illness/disease being assessed. Facilitate the group to fill in the matrix.
Step 4
Once the matrix is complete, review with participants.
Use the following guiding questions to facilitate the discussion:
• What have you learned from this exercise? • What are the benefits to both animal and household of taking preventative measures rather than seeking treatment? • What are possible solutions for reducing this disease/illness that reduce the costs for households? • Are there opportunities to take collective action to reduce the costs? • What steps would you take to put these solutions into practice?
Based on the discussion, prompt the group to decide on what actions they wish to take, any support needed, responsible parties and add them to the community action plan.
Step 5
The matrix should be documented, either through photos or recreated on paper. Copies should be made and distributed to the group for their records and for reference for future discussions and action planning. Add a copy to your project action tracker along with any identified needs for support or actions that need to be taken by the project.
Facilitator’s Notes: Cost-benefit analysis
As this exercise may take some time to complete, limit the number of assessed diseases/illnesses to the main 2-3 priorities. More can be added as time permits or the activity can be conducted again in the future to assess other illnesses/diseases. This is important to reducing the likelihood that participants’ become overwhelmed and/or demotivated to change as a result of the number of changes they are being asked to consider.
As changes in existing practices are achieved and/or new priorities emerge, consider conducting this activity again to generate motivation for change in other animal welfare and management practices.
This tool is best conducted with participants’ who have already been introduced to concepts of animal welfare, understand animals’ needs and best practices. Consider using any or all of the following tools before undertaking a cost benefit analysis:
In contexts where male and female household members have different animal-related roles and responsibilities (e.g. ownership, care, use, financial decision making), conduct this activity with all household members who have key roles and responsibilities associated with the specific animal welfare practices being assessed, and for which change is desired.
If literacy amongst participants is low, consider filling in the matrix using symbols, drawings, or number scoring rather than written text to represent general concepts (e.g. +/-, ?/?/☹). The facilitator is responsible for asking questions and facilitating discussions about representations in the matrix to promote understanding and engagement of all participants. See example in animal feed cost-benefit analysis.
It is common for participants to start by analysing the financial costs and benefits of alternative animal welfare practices and naturally seek out the cheapest options. Your role as a facilitator is to ensure that animal welfare costs and benefits are included in the discussions, along with their related implications on animal-owning households.
Next Steps
Address any misconceptions or gaps in knowledge or understanding that were added to your project action tracker (plans for additional outreach, trainings, or experiential learning activities to further sensitize animal-owning households within their own action plan).
The following tools are recommended for use as a reflective learning exercise to understand whether any of the originally perceived costs and benefits of action were realized as a result of changes adopted to practices.
Participants may monitor animal-based welfare indicators to assess changes in animal welfare resulting from their changes in practice. Consider using animal-based welfare indicators developed in the following exercises:
This tool explores the potential benefits, risks and affordability of adopting different animal feeding practices to both the animal and their owners, users and carers thereby enabling participants to thoroughly examine the implications of their choices for more informed decision making. By promoting understanding of the benefits of changing their current feeding practices to improve animal welfare, along with the costs of maintaining the current situation, this exercise can support animal welfare improvements by generating motivation and commitment to change, and identify opportunities for reducing costs through collective action.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To promote understanding of the potential costs and benefits of improving animal feeding practices and effects of inaction for both animals and people • To motivate participants to take action, either independently or collectively, to improve the welfare their animals • To identify ways to reduce costs of adopting new feeding practices to improve animal welfare through collective group action.
2-3 hours
Materials needed:
Chart paper, index cards or sticky notes, pens/markers, chalk, stones, pebbles, local materials (leaves, seeds, etc.)
Stages of Behaviour Change: Contemplation, Preparation Stage
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools
Specific Topics: Animal Husbandry and Management, Group Formation / Strengthening
Feeding practice analysis
In our experience, many working animals are thin and community groups identify feeding as one of their main concerns. Root cause analyses often highlight difficulties in finding enough good quality food of high nutritional value and the high cost is often considered a barrier. The feeding practice analysis explores whether changes in animal feeding practices will lead to better animal welfare outcomes whilst remaining affordable. It can assess current feeding practices, the nutritional content of different feeds and/or general effect on the animal, and the best formulation of feed at low cost. Finally, this tool can identify opportunities to improve the affordability of feeds through collective action.
T15c Cost-benefit analysis of animal feeding practices in Halaba, Ethiopia
Cost-benefit Analysis of Feeding Practices
Step 1
Start by asking participants to discuss different types of feed available throughout the year, not just those which are currently available. Ask the community helper to draw a matrix on the ground or a large piece of chart paper, list the difference types of feed down the first column using words, symbols, pictures, or locally available materials to represent the different feed types.
Step 2
Ask participants to list the factors they consider when weighing the costs and benefits of using the different feeds. The group may add as many factors as they feel necessary.
The facilitator may probe the participants to consider the following factors if not initially identified, however factors should only be included which the participants use to inform their decision making:
• Cost • Availability (seasonal/annual) • Access (ease of obtaining) • Nutritional value for promoting animal health and productivity • Discounts for buying in bulk
Ask the community helper to list identified factors along the top row of the matrix.
Please note: As a facilitator, ensure that the nutritional value for promoting animal health and productivity is included in the matrix if not already identified by participants so that the assessment of costs and benefits of different feed types do not solely consider factors important to households.
Step 3
Facilitate the group to fill in the matrix. Consider using any combination of writing, drawings, symbols, number scoring (e.g. 🙂/😐/☹️, +/-) and/or locally available materials to complete the matrix so participants can understand and discuss it.
Step 4
Review the matrix with participants to assess the costs and benefits associated with changing feeding practices to improve animal welfare.
Use the following guiding questions to facilitate the discussion:
• Which of these feeds do you currently use? • What is the cost of the feed currently being provided (allow participants to specify in terms that are relevant to them e.g. daily/weekly cost)? • Do you think it would be better to use a different formulation of feed than you currently use given each type of feed has a different potential benefit for your animals? • What feeds/formulations would have the highest nutritional content and greatest benefit for animals at lowest cost for households? • Are there opportunities to adopt these improved formulations of feed through collective action/purchase to get a reduced group rate? • What steps would you take to put these solutions into practice?
Based on the discussion, prompt the group to decide on what actions they wish to take, any support needed, and responsible parties, and add them to the community action plan.
Step 5
The matrix should be documented, either through photos or recreated on paper. Copies should be made and distributed to the group for their records and for reference for future discussions and action planning. Add a copy to your project action tracker, along with any identified needs for support or actions that need to be taken by the project.
Step 6
The diagram should be documented through photos or recreated on paper. Copies should be made and distributed to the group for their records, future reference and/or action planning. Add a copy to your project action tracker and note preferred resource and service providers.
Facilitator’s Notes: Cost-benefit analysis
Participants should be sensitized to the nutritional value of different feed types available in their locality and the benefits to promoting animal welfare using easily understood local language. Ideally, this would happen shortly before this activity is conducted.
It is useful for professionals, such as vets or community animal health workers, to be present for this activity to advise on the nutritional content of different feeds to promote understanding and accurate accounting of potential costs and benefits to animals of different feeds and support development of a locally appropriate feeding plan.
Make sure that participants consider more than just the financial costs when deciding whether to change feeding practices. Ensure that planned changes do not reduce household costs at the expense of animal welfare.
This tool is best conducted with participants’ who have already been introduced to concepts of animal welfare, understand animals’ needs and best practices. Consider using any or all of the following tools before undertaking a cost benefit analysis:
In contexts where male and female household members have different animal-related roles and responsibilities (e.g. ownership, care, use, financial decision making), conduct this activity with all household members who have key roles and responsibilities associated with the specific animal welfare practices being assessed, and for which change is desired.
If literacy amongst participants is low, consider filling in the matrix using symbols, drawings, or number scoring rather than written text to represent general concepts (e.g. 🙂/😐/☹️, +/-). The facilitator is responsible for asking questions and facilitating discussions about representations in the matrix to promote understanding and engagement of all participants. See example in animal feed cost-benefit analysis.
It is common for participants to start by analyzing the financial costs and benefits of alternative animal welfare practices and naturally seek out the cheapest options. Your role as a facilitator is to ensure that animal welfare costs and benefits are included in the discussions, along with their related implications on animal-owning households.
Focus on assessing only a few top priority animal welfare practices at a time to reduce the likelihood that participants’ become overwhelmed and/or demotivated to change as a result of the number of changes they are being asked to consider. This is important if the changes are perceived as challenging or high risk to adopt. However, when new practices or behaviours are relatively easy to adopt with little risk or cost (e.g. grooming), it may be possible to assess more than a few without overwhelming participants.
As changes in existing practices are achieved and/or new priorities emerge, consider repeating this activity with other animal welfare and management practices.
Next Steps
Add identified misconceptions or gaps in knowledge/understanding to your project action tracker, along with any of the community’s plans for outreach, trainings or experiential sensitization/learning activities.
Use the following tools as reflective learning exercises to understand whether any of the originally perceived costs and benefits were realized as a result of adopted changes:
Participants may monitor animal-based welfare indicators to assess changes in animal welfare resulting from their changes in practice. Consider using animal-based welfare indicators developed in the following exercises:
The Behaviour Change Planning Table to helps you strategically think through and plot the theory of change for achieving desired behaviour change to inform your community animal welfare improvement project planning.
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach, Community Engagement Approach, Societal Outreach and Campaigns Approach
Behavioural Drivers (COM-B): Behaviour Change Diagnosis and Planning
Project Support: Facilitator Resources, Documentation and Reporting
Complete the table by following Steps 1-6 in the table. A completed table is provided as an example, along with a blank template for you to complete for your project. The table reflects information related to one desired behaviour, and it is recommended you complete one for each behaviour, or desired result, the project desires to promote whenever feasible.
Example of Completed Behaviour Change Planning Table
STEP 1
STEP 2
STEP 3 (*see instructions below)
STEP 4
STEP 5
What behaviour/ action is being promoted by the project and what are the animal welfare issue(s) it is expected to address?
Who is the target group (who is expected to adopt this change)?
What needs to change for target groups(s) to be able adopt desired behaviours/improve animal welfare? (e.g. in terms of COM-B/barriers to behaviour change)
What do project activities need to achieve to address what needs to change? (e.g. Increase/ decrease/ improve / reduce…. + …perception …ability (knowledge / skills) …availability of / access to…)
What activities will be undertaken by the project to achieve these desired changes?
EXAMPLE: Feed animals dry feed mixed with small amount of water to reduce dust inhalation to reduce the incidence of colic
EXAMPLE: 1. Women carers 2. Girls and boys who help with feeding
EXAMPLE: 1. Women, girls, and boys are not aware of the causes of colic (C-Ps) 2. Women, girls, and boys do not know how to prevent colic (C-ps) 3. Water is not available in the house to mix with feed in the mornings (only available after midday once retrieved from local water point by women) (O-ph)
EXAMPLE: 1. Increase women, boys, and girls understanding of the causes of colic 2. Increase women, boys, and girls’ ability to prevent colic that results from their husbandry and management practices
EXAMPLE: CCAs conduct home visits where:
STEP 6
EXAMPLE Impact Indicators: # Of incidents of colic reported by animal owning households Improved income generation from reduced number of days animal is unable to work
EXAMPLE Outcome Indicators: % women carers and girls and boys who feed animals dry feed mixed with small amount of water % Of women, girls, and boys aware of the causes of colic and how to prevent it % Of households reporting water is accessible in the house in the morning to mix feed
EXAMPLE Output Indicators: # Of training sessions held on causes and prevention of colic # Of women carers and girls and boys attended training on causes and prevention of colic
Example 1
Example of Completed Behaviour Change Planning Table
STEP 1
STEP 2
STEP 3 (*see instructions below)
STEP 4
STEP 5
What behaviour/ action is being promoted by the project and what are the animal welfare issue(s) it is expected to address?
Who is the target group (who is expected to adopt this change)?
What needs to change for target groups(s) to be able adopt desired behaviours/improve animal welfare? (e.g. in terms of COM-B/barriers to behaviour change)
What do project activities need to achieve to address what needs to change? (e.g. Increase/ decrease/ improve / reduce…. + …perception …ability (knowledge / skills) …availability of / access to…)
What activities will be undertaken by the project to achieve these desired changes?
EXAMPLE: Owners’ guiding donkeys using verbal and body communication whenever donkeys are required to move.
EXAMPLE: Urban donkey cart drivers in Kenya
EXAMPLE: Urban donkey cart drivers not aware of alternative positive methods of communication with donkeys which does not involve a whipping (C-Ps).
Urban donkey cart drivers lack skills to effectively communicate with the donkeys using body language (C Ph).
EXAMPLE: Increase urban donkey owning cart driver’s awareness of alternative methods of communication which do not involve whipping.
Increase urban donkey owning cart driver’s ability to use verbal or body language to communicate with the donkeys and train donkeys to respond with desired behaviours without using a whip.
EXAMPLE: · Conduct awareness sessions for Urban donkey cart drivers · Animal welfare experts conduct alternative guiding methods training sessions · Coach and mentor owners to practice new guiding method skills they are trained on in classroom and in real life setting
STEP 6
EXAMPLE Outcome Indicators:
# Of Urban donkey cart drivers in Kenya reporting that they use alternative guiding (verbal and body communication)
% Donkeys in urban areas in Kenya with improved body score condition.
EXAMPLE Output Indicators:
# Of training/mentoring sessions held on alternative guiding communication with Urban donkey cart drivers
Example 2
* For STEP 3: List what needs to change for desired results of project in terms of the following COM-B components, labelling each need accordingly (e.g. C-ph, M-Au)
Physical capability (C-ph) – physical skills, strength, or stamina
Psychological capability (C-ps) – knowledge, cognitive and interpersonal skills, memory, attention, decision making processes, behavioural regulation
Physical opportunity (O-ph) – physical environment and resources
Social opportunity (O-so) – social influences
Reflective motivation (M-Re) – beliefs (e.g. about capabilities, consequences), optimism, intentions, social/professional roles and identify
Most communities may not know how best to apply the Cost-benefit analysis tool (T15) to motivate groups to improve the welfare of their working animals. The animal welfare snakes, and ladder game provide a fun and entertaining way for the communities to apply the cost benefit analysis tool: The tool is adapted from the traditional ‘snakes and ladders’ game.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
To engage the interest of participants and increase their collective knowledge about animal management and motivates them to act on poor welfare practices.
2 hours
Materials needed:
Chart paper or a piece of cloth, markers, or other locally available resources, such as cards, photos, bottle tops, leaf’s, stones, etc.
Stages of Behaviour Change: Pre-contemplation Stage, Contemplation Stage
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools
Specific Topics: Animal Husbandry and Management; Animal Handling; Animal Welfare, Feelings and Needs; Community Change Agents
Figure T16: Illustrated example of original large cloth board of Snakes and ladders game developed by Brooke Egypt, Cairo (2009).
Animal Welfare Snakes and Ladders Game
Step 1
For this game you need to prepare beforehand. The common Snakes and Ladders board game is used for the exercise, either the small size available in the market, or you can make a big version using large sheets of cloth or paper. The game has between 50 and 100 squares in a matrix. Ladders and snakes are drawn or painted on, connecting different squares (see Figure T16b)
To convert the game for animal welfare cost-benefit analysis, two types of information need to be collected before starting:
• Existing animal management or work practices which are positive/good. • Existing animal management or work practices which are negative/bad.
These practices need to be recorded in advance on cards, using words, symbols, or photos. Place one card in the square at the top and bottom of each snake, and one at the top and bottom of each ladder. Snakes are usually associated with cost or loss and ladders with benefit or gain. This cost or loss and benefit or gain can be expressed in both welfare and financial terms. For example, bad hoof care practices can lead to lameness (pain and poor welfare for the animal) as well as three days’ loss of work for the owner, costing them a certain amount of money a day. Alternatively, causes and effects can be put at opposite ends of the snakes and ladders. For example, the card at a snake’s head could show a lame animal, while the one at the tail could show poor hoof care practices (bad quality shoeing or untrimmed feet).
Step 2
Normally six to eight people play the game together using dice. Each participant is represented by a different counter or object (such as a bottle top, leaf, or stone) placed on the first square. Everyone gets a chance to play by rolling the dice in turn. At the beginning somebody must roll a six before the game can start. Then each player moves their counter the same number of squares as he or she rolls on the dice.
Step 3
When a player’s counter lands on a square containing a card or photo, the card is turned and discussed by the players. If a player reaches a square showing the head of a snake, the counter must be moved down to the tail of the snake. When a player reaches a square at the bottom of a ladder, they can climb the ladder to reach the square at the top.
Before moving from a snake’s tail, players must describe a situation that they have experienced which is like the one shown on the card. Encourage the group to discuss this and decide what types of action would turn the cost into a benefit, before moving on to the next player.
Facilitation Notes
Consider using many variations of this game, such as placing question cards about good and bad animal management practices in random squares on the board.
Consider using a large board so that players can walk around it to play.
The game can be used with both adult and children with great success.
Next Steps
The tool can be supplemented with the following tools to determine if there have been any changes in motivation of the community towards improving their animal welfare and the value they place on the animal, as well as their knowledge on how to best take care of the animals:
Figure 32: Overview of the Intensive Community Development (CD) Approach
The community development (CD) approach is a more intensive approach than the community engagement approach and societal outreach and campaigns approach. This approach relies on using participatory techniques with individuals and groups to progress through the stages of change in a way that aims to promote empowerment within communities to identify, prioritise and work towards sustained improvement of animal welfare issues of importance to them.
Community members determine, through inclusive dialogue and consensus, the mobilisation, planning, development, reflection, monitoring and evaluation of their own solutions to address their animal welfare priority needs. Your job as practitioner is not to transmit education or messages but to facilitate dialogue and participation. The members own experience, skills and stories complete the development process as they are best placed to understand the holistic community-wide solutions that will improve animal welfare in their own locality. Practitioners and community members all learn together through action and reflection, each community will be different, so adaptability is key.
Before working with a community, it is important to have the appropriate permits to work within the region, these may be obtained through regional or local government departments depending on the country or area you are working.
You will need to meet with local leaders (local and traditional) to ask for their cooperation, to discuss the ideas for collaboration and to gain their perspective, it is recommended to have a respected member of the community to help make introductions; it is likely you will have to arrange a meeting beforehand to ensure all necessary person/s are present. These leaders may voice their opinions about what they feel your project should target but these opinions may only fit within their specific agenda, it is important at this stage to create dialogue from the outset to ensure your presence is supported and that it is understood the process needs to be driven by the community itself.
Identify who you need to speak with before talking to all members of the community – often there are unwritten protocols, ensure you get off to a good start by respecting the order of communication expected within the community. Respecting customs is extremely important, respect their approach and be guided by those within the community. Their time frame and approaches may be counter to what you are used to but if not followed engagement may be weakened.
A summary overview of the entire community development approach outlined within this guide is provided in Figure 32 above. Whilst the diagram shows a simple summary different contexts and communities will progress through these phases at different rates. The process will be an iterative cycle of planning and implementation as learning proceeds, arrows highlight that the process is non-linear, and you may find you have to revisit previous phases as the project develops. The steps contained within this stage are about building collaboration, trust and understanding to encourage participation to empower communities in efforts to improve animal welfare.
The diagram below illustrates the general progress through the stages of change throughout the different phases of the intensive community development approach. However, as change is a process, community members can progress or relapse through the stages of change at any time during the project. As such, it is recommended that facilitators pay careful attention to where individuals are in their change process and adapt as needed to support people’s continued progress through the stages of change. Refer to the Human Behaviour Change Learning Module Part 3 for an introduction to the stages of change.
Figure 33: The Stages of Change Linked with the Phases of the Community Development Approach
‘If I were an animal’ is a tool specifically designed to put the animal and its welfare at the centre of community analysis and discussion and is very popular in animal-owning communities. It enables people to experience the point of view of the working animal by asking them to reflect on the question: ‘If I were an animal, what would I expect from my owner or carer?’ This tool is a good follow up to animal body mapping (T20) and animal feeling analysis (T19).
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To raise awareness of animals’ needs and promoting positive welfare states • To understand the effects on animals and humans when animals’ needs are not met • To identify the perceived extent animals’ needs are being met within the community • Can support identification of indicators related to animals’ body and behaviours, husbandry and management practices, and effects of animal’s welfare on people’s lives • To identify perceived animal welfare issues and gaps in knowledge to support intervention planning
1.5 - 2 hours
Materials needed:
Sticks, coloured powder or chart paper, cards, markers, stones, beans, seeds or other locally available materials. Picture of an animal if one is available.
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach, Community Engagement Approach, Societal Outreach and Campaigns Approach
Behavioural Drivers (COM-B): Behaviour Change Diagnosis and Planning, Capability, Motivation
Stages of Behaviour Change: Pre-contemplation Stage, Contemplation Stage
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools, Needs Assessment, Monitoring and Evaluation
Specific Topics: Animal Husbandry and Management; Animal Handling; Animal Welfare, Feelings and Needs; Livelihoods; Compassion / Empathy, Community Change Agents / Resilience
If I were an animal…’
Figure T17 shows the completed ’If I were an animal’ diagram developed by a group of animal owners as one of the first steps in a participatory welfare needs assessment. They identified five expectations that their animals have of them as owners in order to survive and thrive: humane handling (no beating), no over-loading, timely treatment, sufficient feed/fodder and sufficient water. In the second circle they scored their present practices out of ten: they scored lowest on humane handling (no beating) and highest on sufficient food/fodder. Through discussion, the group identified the effects of not meeting their animals’ expectations on the animal, including fear, lameness, weakness and wounds, including where they would look for the specific behavioural and physical signs resulting from not meeting their animals’ expectation. Finally, they identified the effects on the human owners, including loss of income and aggressive/scared animals that are more difficult to handle. These effects were recorded and used by the group to assess their animals during an Animal welfare transect walk (T22).
'If I were an animal'
Step 1
Start by encouraging participants to see the world from their animals’ point of view. Ask what expectations their animals have of them to have a happy and healthy life. If they are struggling with this concept, ask them what they need as humans to be happy and healthy, then extend the question to their animals. At this point, the group should start identifying expectations animals have of their owners. Ask the community helper to write the expectations on cards for everyone to see or use representative drawings.
When participants have finished identifying their animals’ expectations of them, it is the facilitator’s responsibility to ensure that all welfare components have been considered. Use the following guiding questions as needed to facilitate participants to identify their animals’ expectations of them in terms of any of the following domains of welfare which they have not yet considered:
• Health - What do animals need/expect of owners to be healthy? (Disease prevention, timely treatment, proper fitting equipment) • Nutrition - What do animals need/expect of owners for good nutrition? (feeding & watering) • Environment - What do animals need/expect of owners in their environment? (Comfort, rest, temperature, shelter) • Behaviour - What do animals need/expect of owners to express their natural behaviours? (Freedom of movement, social interaction with other animals)
Please note: The facilitator should group/organise similar expectations into one category and explain the reason for the grouping (only if the anticipated effects of the expectation not being met are the same). For example, if the community identified ‘free access to water’ and ‘clean water’, consider consolidating the two examples into one ‘free access to clean water’ category.
Once the list is complete, ask the community helper to record the group-identified expectations on cards using words, symbols, or local materials.
Step 2
Next, ask the community helper to draw a big circle on the ground or on paper and place an animal in the centre. If you carry drawings or models of animals with you, such as the one used for animal body mapping (T20), put one of these in the centre of the circle to represent the animal instead.
Step 3
Once all cards have been placed, ask participants which of the actors support their animals specifically. Mark the card with coloured dot or sticker representative of the animal. The more the dots or sticker representing the animal are placed on an actor, the more support the actor provides.
Step 4
Ask participants to identify which relationships are accessible by men, women, or both, by placing a different indicative mark on the card (either using pens or stickers, or bean types). If the relationship is accessible to both men and women, ask whether accessibility is equal for both sexes. You may wish to place a > / = / < in between the representative marks or objects to indicate which sex has greater access. If it is just one group (e.g. only men) then this step is not necessary.
Step 5
Once the social Venn diagram is complete, encourage participants to discuss what it shows (if not already identified through previous discussions).
Consider using the following questions as a guide:
• Why are some relationships perceived to be more or less important? • Why are certain actors more important for men or women? (If identified) • Are there differences between men, women and/or children within the household? • Why are some actors positively or negatively affecting people and their animals? • What changes in this network could improve yours and/or your animals’ lives? • What can you as an individual or group do to improve your relationships with these actors? • What have you learned because of participating in this activity?
Initiation Phase:
Step 6
The diagram should be documented through photos or recreated on paper. Copies should be made and distributed to the group for their records, future reference and/or action planning. Add a copy to your project action tracker.
Planning Phase:
Step 7
Have the community helper record any actions the group agrees to the community action plan. Record the community’s agreed actions and activities in your project action tracker and support the community by following up with any identified key stakeholders.
Facilitator’s Notes: ‘If I were an animal’
Consider conducting an animal feeling analysis (T19) in a prior session to assess the positive and negative factors that influence how animals feel and behave.
Ideally, this exercise should be carried out with 15-20 participants in order have everyone input into the discussion. If the group is large, consider having a second facilitator and break the group into two.
Encourage everyone to express their own views and avoid using only one person’s examples or contributions for the diagram. Allow enough time to discuss participants’ own beliefs and traditional animal management practices.
It can be helpful to have pictures/diagrams on hand that represent the possible effects on animals when their expectations are not met, which may be used instead of hand writing. This can support sensitization and be used in situations where literacy is low.
Next Steps
Follow up with the T22 Animal welfare transect walk to support the assessment and monitoring of animals’ welfare and identification of common welfare problems to inform action planning.
As a first step, the facilitator should prepare a list of the observable indicators derived from identified expectations and effects which reflect animal-based indicators (body and behavioural related indicators), resources, and management practices. In addition, animal-based welfare indicators identified through T19 ‘Animal feeling analysis’, and/or T20 ‘Animal body mapping’ exercises can be used to inform indicator selection for the transect walk. This list of indicators can then be presented back to the community to agree on the criteria which defines each in terms of good, moderate, bad condition/state (green, yellow, red).
Consider using the ‘effects on humans’ identified in step six to inform human indicator selection if part of the project.
Address any identified gaps in knowledge through sensitization or training sessions. It is recommended to conduct this prior to undertaking any community-based action planning.
Any identified gaps can be examined in more detail using the following tools, especially prior to undertaking any community-based action planning:
T21 Animal welfare practice gap analysisto promote understanding of the drivers of gaps in animal welfare practices, such as lack of motivation, resources, or knowledge that can be used to develop targeted behavioural change strategies.
T25 Problem animal to identify the root causes of the different animal welfare issues observed on the body of the animal and inform action planning to address them.
T26 Animal welfare cause effect analysis to explore the root causes of specific animal welfare issues and promote understanding of the effects of the issue on animals and people as a means to generate improved motivation to take action and inform action planning.
This tool encourages people to think about how their animal(s) feels based on their experience. By mapping animals’ experiences and associated feelings over time, it allows community members to see the cumulative positive and/or negative impact of these experiences. In this way, the tool can provide insights into how communities perceive their animals’ experiences and understand their feelings and needs.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• Generate communities’ understanding of how daily activities affect animals’ feelings contribute to animals’ positive or negative welfare states and impact their quality of life. • Improve communities’ compassion for their animals. • Support communities to identify opportunities for providing positive life experiences of their animals. • Motivate communities to increase the provision and frequency of positive life experiences of their animals, as well as other people in their lives. • Help identify gaps in communities’ understanding of animal welfare and animal sentience which can help inform project activity planning
2-2.5 hours
Materials needed:
Facilitator prompt sheets/visual aids including Balance of Life Experiences scale (refer to the animal welfare learning module for example), Five Domains of animal welfare, pens, and paper (not limited to paper, the facilitator can explore different ways the different communities want to document their information)
Stages of Behaviour Change: Pre-contemplation Stage
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools, Training
Specific Topics: Animal Husbandry and Management; Animal Handling; Animal Welfare, Feelings and Needs; Animal Health and Services; Compassion/Empathy; Community Change Agents
T18a: A day in the Life of an Animal
“A day in a life of an animal”
Step 1
Form 2-3 small groups of 3-5 people depending on the number of participants. The more groups the longer the activity may take.
Step 2
Ask the groups to think about the animals in their community, and to choose an individual animal that they will explore together. Ask the group for a summary of the individual animal, for example age, name, whether they work. If using pens and paper this animal can be drawn in the middle, or if reporting verbally then the participants can give a quick overview in the introduction to the group in Step 5.
Be prepared to ensure the group focuses on one example (e.g., a horse working in a brick kiln, a chicken providing eggs).
Step 3
Ask each group to draw a clock with 24hrs and briefly describe what the animal is doing over the course of the day (e.g., waking up, eating/drinking, being prepared for work, working, resting) and map these on the 24 clocks. Check to ensure all key periods and activities have been included, asking probing questions if you think anything may be missing.
Step 4
Then ask each group to pick at least 3 time points throughout the day (recommended to choose at least as many time points as people in their group), and consider in more detail what the animal is experiencing at each of these time points including: • What activities are/ is the animal doing/engaged in (e.g., feeding)?
Prompt the group to think in terms of the five domains. Often people will focus on tangible things like food and water. Try to also ensure that other activities are also covered, for example free time, rest, social contact. Refer to the five domains of animal welfare visual aid if available to support their discussion.
• What are the frequency and duration of these activities/experiences? • How does each activity/experience make the animal feel (e.g., experiencing pleasurable tastes) and influence the animal’s mental state?
Some people find it easier to reflect on how they would feel in that situation. So, for example discussing quality rest – you could ask, “how do you feel when you don’t sleep well? Can you sleep when it is very noisy around? Has anyone ever been prevented from sleeping because they were worried about something (that was going to happen to them the next day)?”
Step 5
Next, bring the groups together and ask them to give a short introduction to their chosen animal’s day to the whole group. Each person in the group can present at least one time point so that between them they cover the full day.
Next, facilitate a discussion using the points below as a discussion guide: • Probe for more details on their animals’ daily experiences/activities where appropriate and needed to encourage them to think about and identify the nature of these experiences in terms of whether they may be positive or negative where this may not yet be clear.
For example, with rest, can the animals move freely? Are they restrained up next to someone or something they don’t like or fear? Are they restrained so that they cannot relax properly and achieve good quality rest? Is the environment noisy, preventing them from sleeping? How do their rest patterns align with their natural needs?
• Discuss whether an activity and/or experience is truly positive or whether it reflects an alleviation of a negative experience. For example, providing water to a dehydrated animal is alleviating a negative experience, whereas play is (most likely) a positive experience. - As negative and positive experiences are not always the direct opposite of each other, it is important to discuss them separately e.g., is the experience negative or not; is the experience positive or not.
• Encourage discussion of how the frequency, duration, and intensity of experiences differ, and how this can impact an animal’s quality of life.
For example, if an animal is wounded in an accident, this may be a very intense experience and painful at the time. However, if the animal is in a secure environment and receives prompt and effective treatment, then the negative experience will be lasting. However, if the animal does not receive treatment, then the negative experience will last longer. Even if the injury is minor and the pain experienced is not initially intense, if left untreated the pain will increase, and the animal may need to be active or work with the painful injury or be unable to rest properly if in pain. These experiences will accumulate, making the overall balance of these experiences will be negative, and lower the animals’ resilience to other negative experiences. In this example, a short but high intensity experience may have less impact on the balance of experiences than a less intense but longer lasting experience.
• Ask what opportunities are provided for their animal to experience comfort, pleasure, interest, confidence, and the ability to make choices and feel a sense of being in control? - For example, if they are provided with shelter, do they have the choice about when to enter the shelter and when to remain outside, allowing them to adjust for their thermal comfort and security (e.g., some animals, such as horses, may feel very trapped in a shelter, whereas other animals, such as dogs, may feel a lot safer within a shelter than outside).
• Based on this discussion, where do you believe your animal sits on the balance of life experiences scale and why? (Refer to the balance of life experience visual aid if available)
Once concluded, summarize their discussion in terms of the following points: • Key points in the animal’s day (e.g., rest, work, eat, drink, are tied up (movement restricted), roam freely). • The range of their animals’ experiences and feelings. • How animals’ feelings would change if experiences were very frequent or very prolonged. • Highlight where the animal sits on the balance of life experiences scale and why.
Step 6
Next use the following questions to encourage participants to reflect and learn from the activity:
• Was there anything that surprised you? • What did you learn from this activity? • How representative do you think this is of your other animals/animal in the community? • Is there anything that you think you could do differently in the future to improve your animal’s quality of life based on your learnings from this activity?
Encourage them to identify and/or draw attention to the positive aspects of what they already do as a means to promote reflection and learning and motivation to do more of what is already feasible for them, rather than focusing on what they can’t.
Step 7
Finally, draw the activity to a conclusion using the following points: • Reflect on the original aims and purpose of the activity and draw conclusions relevant to these • Highlight key reflections about what participants learned doing this activity. • Summarize what the group concluded they could do to minimise negative experiences and/or increase positive experiences in their animals’ lives.
T18b: The Life of an Animal
The life of an animal
Step 1
If doing this exercise in a separate session from the day in a life activity, begin with Step 1 and 2 from the “A day in the Life of an Animal” activity above first.
If conducting this activity in the same session following completion of the day in the life activity, skip to step 2 below.
Step 2
Explain they will be mapping their animal’s experiences over the course of the animal’s lifetime and ask them to decide how they wish to represent the lifetime of their animal’s life cycle visually e.g., table, circle, list, timeline.
Then ask each group to identify the major life cycles/stages/time points of their animal, and plot these in accordance with how they decided to represent the animal’s lifetime. Encourage them to identify at least as many life events as people in their group, ensuring they include consideration of the animal’s life cycle from birth, growth, reproduction, working up to end of life as well.
Step 3
Once the life stages/time points of their animal are identified in step 2, ask each group to explore in more detail what the animal is experiencing at each stage, you can use the following to guide the discussions:
• What activities are some of the activities the animal is doing/engaged in at each stage (e.g., working, breeding)?
Prompt the group to think in terms of the five domains for the life cycle/stage of the animal they have picked to focus on. Often people will focus on tangible things like food and water. Try to also ensure that other activities are also covered, for example free time, rest, social contact. Refer to the five domains of animal welfare visual aid if available to support their discussion. • What are the frequency and duration of these activities/experiences? • How does each activity/experience make the animal feel (e.g., experiencing pleasurable tastes, experiencing positive human-animal interactions, experiencing and exhibiting positive natural behaviours, etc.) and influence the animal’s mental state?
Some people find it easier to reflect on how they would feel in that situation. So, for example discussing quality rest – you could ask, “how do you feel when you don’t sleep well? Can you sleep when it is very noisy around? Has anyone ever been prevented from sleeping because they were worried about something (that was going to happen to them the next day)?”
Explore the different life stages in more detail considering what the animal is experiencing at each stage. Details to be discussed should consider both the activity (e.g., weaning) and the associated mental state (e.g., distress/fear/panic if forcibly weaned and put in isolation). • What are the frequency and duration of these life experiences? • How does each experience make the animal feel (e.g., experiencing pleasurable tastes, experiencing positive human-animal interactions, experiencing and exhibiting positive natural behaviours, etc.) and influence the animal’s mental state?
Some people find it easier to reflect on how they would feel in that situation. So, for example discussing being separated from other animals and kept alone – you could ask, “how do you feel when you are isolated from friends and family? Has anyone ever been prevented from socializing with your network of support?”
Step 4
After discussion, bring the groups together and ask them to present the lifetime of their animals to the whole group. Each person in the groups should present at least one time point/life stage, which between them covers the entire lifespan. Encourage discussion of how the animal’s welfare changes over their lifetime using the guiding questions below, and encourage a process of reflecting on the exercise, generalising, and application. Conclude where this animal sits on the Balance of Life Experiences chart.
Step 5
Once finished, summarize key reflections and learnings from discussions including:
• Key points in the animal’s life (e.g., birth, early life, weaning, working/productive life, ownership changes, end of life). • The range of experiences and feelings, and how these change over time. • How quality of life is impacted by experiences that are very frequent or very long. key reflections and what people discovered by participating in this exercise. • What the group concluded they could do to minimise negative and add more positive experiences, including any immediate actions vs longer term changes needed.
Conclude by reflecting on the original aims and purpose of the exercise and draw conclusions relevant to these, and ensure concluding reflections highlight where the animal sits on the balance of life experiences scale and why.
Facilitator's Notes
Preparatory work (things to consider before the exercise):
It is important that participants have been socialized in the concepts of the five domains of animal welfare and balance of quality life experiences prior to beginning this activity. If they have not yet had an introduction to these concepts, you will need to build in more time to introduce these concepts in advance.
Consider your target audience (community, community facilitators) for this exercise.
Establish your motivations and goals for doing this exercise with that group of participants.
Based on this, decide whether you will run both activities and only run one of the activities.
Establish what species/animals are you are likely to, or need to, discuss and why (consider whether there is benefit of having same species groups e.g., equid owners).
Do you feel confident with the application of this task to those species? Do you feel confident discussing the range of positive and negative experiences for the different animal species that you may be discussing during the exercise? Do you need to seek some further support or clarification?
Consider a manageable group size (too small may produce too little discussion, too big may result in too much variation, debate, or not enabling everyone to participate fully).
Be prepared with information to respond to how a community views the animal experiences. We suggest that in advance of the session you have a list of ‘red flags’ – practices that are very dangerous to welfare and need an immediate response – and an idea of what the ideal situation would look like, so that you are clear on what you can praise/want to see.
Consider how you may capture these results with literate and illiterate groups (use photo to capture if they have used different symbols to represent the life of an animal)
In this tool it is important to focus on increasing opportunities for positive experiences, and not only opportunities for reducing negative experiences.
for “The life of an animal” activity, the following suggestions also apply:
Consider how the community/culture would most likely break down the life of an animal e.g., by age, by life event, and work with them to establish the best way of doing this. Ensure that all the critical stages/life cycles from birth to end of life are captured in the discussion even though the classification might vary.
Be prepared to challenge or fill in gaps of key life stages that may be missed.
Next Steps
This exercise may be used to improve communities understanding of how experiences can impact on an animal, promote understanding of the concept of animal welfare generally, and/or as a precursor to community action planning by helping to generate discussion and ideas about how community members can provide more opportunities for their animals to have more positive life experiences and a greater sense of control choice and feeling of control. Next steps will therefore vary depending on your intended objectives of use of this tool, and in what project phase you are implementing it. Think about how the information or outcomes generated from this activity may be used or help inform your next steps. You may also wish to consider whether they can serve as an indicator of change which you may wish to assess again later. (Although if this uncovers incidents of welfare practices that are unacceptable then the facilitators should explore using the available resources within this guide how to address them).
This resource outlines key information for community facilitators to support effective group formation and management including the process of group formation, key characteristics of successful community groups and factors influencing community group success, as well as common challenges and any advice for mitigating them.
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach
Project Support: Facilitator Resources, Training
Specific Topics: Group Formation/Strengthening
14a. Overview of Group Formation Process
The process of group formation begins with community mobilization. This entails engaging the community to come together to support a common shared interest and achieve a particular goal or objective.
The process of group formation was first outlined by psychologist Bruce Tuckman and describes how teams (or small groups) move through stages which are further defined below and include: forming, storming, norming, and performing, and adjourning (or mourning). The figure below illustrates Tuckman’s team development model, where each of the five stages of team development represent a step on the team-building ladder. As the group members climb the ladder, they move from a random assembly of strangers into a high-performing team or group capable of working towards a common goal.
Fig 14a: Process of Group Formation (Adapted from [70, 111])
The five stages of small group development are further defined below.
Forming: At this stage, the individuals or community group members begin to know each other, understand the purpose of the team or group, and looking for direction from the group leader.
Storming: At this stage, people start to push against the established boundaries. Conflict or friction can also arise between team members as their true characters – and their preferred ways of working surface and clash with other people
Norming: People start to resolve their differences, appreciate one another's strengths, and respect the authority of their leader.
Performing: The group is in flow and performing to its full potential. With hard work and structured processes, the team is likely to achieve its goals efficiently.
Adjourning (or Mourning): Many groups reach this stage naturally. For example, projects come to an end, or permanent groups are disbanded, and people redeployed.
It should be noted this model and stages are not a one-way street. Groups may go back and forth between stages. For example, when a new group member joins a group it can disrupt the group dynamic, or when it decided to undertake a new collective action it may regress and need to re-evaluate the groups’ goals and members’ roles and responsibilities. Thus, when a group arrives at the performing stage, it is important to continue observing the groups progress and assess whether there is any regression which may need to be addressed.
Follow the steps below to support facilitation of a group’s progress through the stages of group formation and strengthening:
Identify the stage that your group is at from the descriptions above.
Consider what you/the group’s members and/or leadership can do to support the group’s progress to the next stage
Schedule regular reviews of group progress and adjust behaviours and leadership approach accordingly.
14b. Factors Influencing Community Group Success
Factors influencing group success are outlined below [88] [112]:
Similarities of Attitudes and Values: One of the strongest sources of group cohesiveness is the similarity in attitudes and values among group members. This plays a key role when focusing on a particular goal that the whole group believe in. Having a clearly defined group vision is therefore critical to group success.
Size of the Group: Small groups are effective. The larger the size of the group, the less cohesive the group is. The main reasons for this are: i. When the group is small, its members have constant face to face contacts. Thus, there will be high degree of interaction and communication with each other. In large groups, the possibility of interaction among members is less. ii. As group size increases, it becomes more difficult to get the group to agree on common goals and activities and expression of disagreement and dissatisfaction increases. iii. Another problem with large size groups is that there is a likelihood of forming small groups within the large groups. This would result in the dilution of the common group goal thus increasing the extent of power politics play. This tends to decrease the overall cohesiveness. iv. Studies have shown that if all the members of the group are of the same sex, then small groups have better cohesion than large ones. But when the groups were made up of both males and females, the large groups have better cohesion.
Time: It is quite natural that the more time people spend with one another, the more they will get to know each other and more tendency there will be to get closer to each other, thus, strengthening the degree of cohesiveness.
Location: Location of the group plays an important role in determining the cohesiveness. Where members of a group are located close together separated from other groups, they will develop greater cohesiveness because of constant face to face interaction. Where there is no dividing line between one group and another, cohesion is more difficult to achieve because a chain of interactions develops.
Difficulty in Entry: The more difficult it is to get in a group, the more cohesive that group becomes. The reasons are that in exclusive and elite groups the members are selected based on certain characteristics and these characteristics being common to all add to the degree of liking and attraction towards each other. The more exclusive the group the more is the closeness among members. As the groups are not easy to join, the selected members feel a sense of pride and accomplishment.
Inter Dependency: When each member of a group has independent activities, the cohesiveness among the members of such group will be less as compared to the group whose members are doing the operations which are dependent upon each other, thus, mutual dependency leads to greater cohesiveness.
Group Leadership Behaviour: The behaviour of the group leadership has a direct influence on the degree of cohesiveness that exists within a group. The leader can make close relations difficult by creating unhealthy competition among members. On the other hand, he can build solidarity by rewarding cooperative behaviour. The cohesive group can help attain the group goals more effectively, if the group members are properly inspired by their leader. A stable and accepted leadership structure. Comprised of honest individuals who demonstrate dedication and sufficient expertise/competency is therefore important to a group’s success.
Member Turnover: To make a group more cohesive, there is need for some degree of stable relationships among members. The higher the degree of member turnover, the less cohesive a group becomes. this is because the more frequently members leave a particular group, the more time it will take for new and old members to get to know each other and re-establish trust and a willingness to cooperate.
Threat: Common threats or challenges are a very powerful force which can unify community members and support group formation, particularly when: i. The perceived threat comes from outside the group ii. Cooperation can help over-come the threat/challenge, and iii. There is little or no change to evade experiencing the threat For example, when there is a perceived threat of poor leadership within a community, community members can become motivated to come together as united front to ensure the threatening party has less chance to succeed and take advantage of the community.
Shared Goals and Previous Successes: When a group achieves a meaningful goal, the cohesiveness of the group increases because the success is shared by all the members and each one feels responsible for the achievement. If the group agrees on the purpose and direction of its activities, this serves to bind the group together. Having a common purpose/shared interest and well defined and agreed upon goals objectives is critical for group success. Regular review of vision, mission, and objectives is also helpful to promoting group success.
Cooperation: Sometimes the general atmosphere of group enhances cohesiveness.
In addition to effective leadership, factors which are important to promoting a positive group atmosphere and group cooperation include:
• A comprehensive constitution and by-laws agreed by all members, where rules are in use/enforced • Having clear mechanisms for the sharing benefits and liabilities amongst members • Effective participation of group members, which can be supported by having clearly defined tasks, and membership responsibilities which are shared. • Effective participation of group members with equal representation of all members. • Strong interpersonal skills for team building • Effective and timely internal conflict resolution mechanisms. • Members respect each other. • Having regular meetings. • Having well established and agreed communication channels within the group, as well as for communication with non-members.
Other general group characteristics contributing to group success include [88] [112]:
Enhance welfare of other members.
Group resources are managed as agreed by group members.
Leaders are democratically elected at specified intervals.
All members are afforded an equal chance/opportunity of being elected leaders.
Group membership is clearly defined.
There is proper record keeping and documentation.
Transparency and accountability.
Continuous acquisition of new skills
In contrast, factors which can contribute to group failure include [88] [112]:
Poor leadership
Unclear vision/ objectives
Poor interpersonal relationship
Poor communication
Undefined tasks
A weak constitution /by laws
Non-adherence to constitution
Lack of mechanisms on sharing benefits
Poor participation
Weak conflict resolution and transformation mechanism
Unwillingness to acquire new skills
Weak interpersonal skills for team building
14c. Common Challenges in Community-based Organization Governance and Recommendations for Addressing Them
Examples of common challenges faced by community-based organizations are outlines below [88]:
Ineffective leadership by political, community and/or religious leaders
Inadequate political good-will from the leaders who are currently in office and out of office
Conflicts, infighting and splinters within groups
Conflict of interest by leaders, government officers, donor agencies, development partners and other stakeholders
External interference from technical officers, local and political leaders
Mismanagement and misappropriation of community project resources
Inadequate resources
Dependency syndrome
Inadequate organizational and management capacity
Poor governance
Low level of community participation and contributions
Poverty
Retrogressive culture
Hostile natural factors
Poor policy framework
Clannism/nepotism/tribalism
Illiteracy
Language barrier
Top – down approach to development
Differences in socio economic status
Dominance by influential community leaders (pioneer syndrome)
Differences based on gender and discrimination
In addition, the following challenges have been identified related to facilitating group formation and strengthening [112]:
May take long time.
If not managed well, might polarise/benefit a specific section of the community.
Misrepresentation of the group.
Conflicts may delay progress.
Might not address individual expectations.
Excluded members may sabotage.
Some individuals might dominate or have adverse roles.
Guidance for addressing some of these common challenges facing community based organization success are outlined below [88]:
Lack of trust
Trust is crucial to teamwork, and it starts with people knowing each other. Group members need to be acquainted, both professionally and personally, particularly in projects where tensions will run high at some point. Otherwise, members won’t understand each other, they won’t want to engage because they haven’t made that human connection and they won’t fully trust each other.
Conflict and tension
Conflict or a difference of opinion can be healthy and, if carefully managed, can trigger useful debates. It can make people think differently, expanding knowledge and insight; innovation can happen and results flourish. Different opinions within a group should not be seen as a bad thing. The group should put in place a mechanism to handle conflict whenever it arises.
Not sharing information
Knowledge is not power – unless it’s shared. Group members all bring a unique set of skills, knowledge, experience, and wisdom to the table. Effective groups fearlessly share regularly and generously for the benefit of everyone and for the benefit of the project’s success. This makes the capability of the whole group grow and gives the group more power. Leadership should strive to ensure that information is freely shared among members.
Low engagement
Group engagement is crucial to the group success. If engaged, group members will be interested in what they do, committed to the group mission and willing to go the extra mile. They are there in body as well as mentally and emotionally. The key to engagement is involvement – by involving others you make it impossible to stay detached.
Lack of transparency
Without transparency, trust will suffer – both within the group and outside. Transparency is becoming the presumed norm in project and programme management and expectations are growing. It starts at the top: the more senior you are, the more responsibility you must be a role model for this. Group members will follow the leader’s behaviours, good or bad. When this is done well, it can have a positive cascade effect throughout the organisation.
No long-term thinking
Group leaders must get beyond day-to-day urgencies, see the big picture, and consider how all parts fit together. For group members, this means being able to think beyond your own area, about how you fit into the wider group and how you impact the groups’ business. This is about group sustainability and long-term success. Everyone is busy, but just being busy is not enough. Long-term group success requires long-term thinking.
Badly perceived, not delivering
A group has a brand, an image and a reputation created by the actions and behaviours of the group members. A large part of the perception is driven by how well the group delivers on expectations and promises made. Community facilitators and group leaders need to make sure that everyone understands and takes responsibility for their roles in creating the perception of the group. This includes both what is delivered by the group and how it is delivered.
Poor change management
Change is constant and unless carefully managed, it can be detrimental to the group progress and results. Change starts and ends with communication. Whenever you think you’ve communicated enough, you need to communicate some more – and it needs to be interactive: listen, talk, and involve. Be aware of the change curve, or the four predictable stages of change: denial/resistance, emotional, hopeful, commitment. Each stage is needed, but how long someone stays at each stage can be managed and kept to a minimum.
Working in silos
Silo working is a reality for many groups. Group members may sit side by side but not really work together. A great group can be like the three musketeers – all for one and one for all. So, if you are in a group, you may as well really be in it. Working together in earnest is about making the most of the fact that you are a team. Honour your time and efforts by seeing yourself as a full-time member of the group, not just an individual contributor.
Not going in the same direction
To walk in the same direction, a group needs to know where it is going or what it is contributing to (vision) and why (purpose). Spend time on this with your group. This clarity provides a framework and ‘reason to be’ that can rally any given group to work together. Keep in mind that visions need to be compelling and purposes meaningful. People respond to the importance of both.
As the only one who can actually change a person’s behaviour is the person himself/ herself, not the facilitator, change agent, or organization, the role of a project is to support people to practice desired behaviours by enabling them to understand (and where possible also experience) the benefits of the promoted behaviours, recognize and believe in their own capabilities, and address those factors that make practicing desired behaviours difficult. It is always important to recognize and appreciate existing positive behaviour as well as start from using locally available resources.
Respect People’s Right to Choose
Projects must always respect individuals’ right to choose (or not) to adopt a particular behaviour (unless it harms or endangers others) and must consider the risks early adopters may face (e.g. disapproval of their community members, incurring initial financial or time-related costs).
Promote Ethical Change
Only seek to change existing behaviours if such change [20]:
has benefits which are perceived by the targeted community members to outweigh the potential costs/losses caused by changing existing behaviours, customs, and traditions.
are proven to effectively address the problems faced by the targeted animal owning community.
are supported by the key stakeholders (such as civil society representatives, ministries)
Practices to Avoid [20]
Avoid changing a behaviour without trying to understand it first e.g. arriving at a community with a plan to change a given behaviour(s) without trying to first understand why people practice it, why they cannot / do not change it.
Avoid using excessive social pressure or victimizing e.g. coercing instead of motivating people; labelling individuals as a bad animal owners or carers/cruel people when they do not follow certain practices while not reflecting on their ability to do so.
Avoid promising more than the behaviour can deliver e.g. exaggerating the real benefits that a behaviour can deliver or downplaying its costs (required time, effort, disapproval of others)
Avoid Promoting a behaviour with unproved effectiveness e.g. asking people to spend their time, effort, or resources on practicing a behaviour (e.g. certain animal husbandry and management practices) for which there is no strong evidence of effectiveness.
Avoid Creating demand without adequate supply e.g. encouraging people to use animal related resources or services which are hard to access (due to costs, poor availability, distance) without helping to improve access.
Avoid ignoring the already present positive behaviours e.g. introducing new practices without assessing and taking advantage of the existing positive behaviours, beliefs, and know-how
Avoid culturally insensitive interventions.
Promote Equality
It is important understand who discriminated and/or vulnerable groups are and ensure equal opportunities for their participation and representation during the design, planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of such projects to mitigate the perpetuation of their discrimination and/or disadvantage. Community animal welfare intervention projects must ensure they do not operate in ways which are blind or exploitative of different social categorizations such as race, class, and gender, disability etc. Such social categorizations often result in overlapping and interdependent systems and patterns of oppression, discrimination, and disadvantage for these groups, a phenomenon known as intersectionality. This may include ensuring policies and standard operating procedures are in place for gender mainstreaming, promoting equality and diversity and inclusion of traditionally marginalized groups in any engagement activities or communications as needed. At the very minimum it is important to strive to promote equality, and measures may be required to promote equity as a means to achieving equality as needed whenever feasible.
Ensure the Capabilities, Safety, and Security of Community-based Workers
Ensure facilitators and/or community change agents have sufficient core competencies to undertake their work with communities in an ethical, effective, and participatory manner, are provided necessary training and support to undertake their responsibilities as needed, and that proper measures are put in place to ensure their safety, security and well-being while working (e.g. to mitigate safeguarding issues and burn out).
Ensuring the Safety, and Security of Community Members
It is important proper policies and standard operating procedures are in place within your organization and project, as well as sufficient capability within your team, to adopt necessary safeguarding measures to work within the local norms and customs in a way that protects and create an enabling environment for potentially discriminated and vulnerable groups.
This facilitator resource provides example templates that community-based organisations can adapt to support their governance and promotion of minimum standards required for operating as community organisations.
Approaches for Working With Communities: Community Development Approach
Project Support: Facilitator Resources, Documentation and Reporting
Specific Topics: Group Formation / Strengthening
15a: Components of Community-based Organization Constitution
The components of a community-based organisation (CBO) constitution you may wish to consider including are listed below. If seeking formal recognition of CBO designation my local authorities/governments, it is important to understand the legal requirements for CBO constitutions ensure any constitution developed meets these legal requirements.
Name of Community Based Organisation (CBO)
Purpose of the CBO Constitution
Objectives of the CBO
Area of Operation
Applicable Legislation to the CBO Constitution
Members of the CBO
Composition of the CBO
Annual General Meetings
General Meetings
Resolutions, Voting and Powers at Annual and General Meetings
Procedure to be followed at CBO Meetings
Finances of the CBO
Powers and Authorities of the CBO including the power to
Call General Meetings
Acquire property and Assets
Manage finances and Fundraising
Engage in contracts and Partnerships
Employ Staff
Duties and Obligations of the CBO
Indemnity - security or protection against a loss or other financial burden
CBO Discretion- Having the freedom to decide how things should be done
Signatures- the action of signing a document as a sign of agreement or being bound by what is in the document.
Legal Personality- In law, a legal person or 'thing' (less ambiguously, any legal entity) that can do the things a human person is usually able to do in law – such as enter contracts, sue, and be sued, own property, and so on.
Amendment of the Constitution and Dissolution of the CBO
Dispute Resolution
Termination
Annex 1: List of Members of the CBO
Annex 2: Mandate from the Community (formal agreement from community authorities/members that CBO represents their community interests in the agreed upon area(s) of interest)
15b: Community-based Organization Group Maturation Checklist
The checklist below is an example checklist of common indicators a community-based group has reached maturation and is well-functioning. Community facilitators are encouraged to use or adapt this checklist to their local context and needs.
Group Maturation Indicator
Rating out of ten
1
Does the group hold regular meetings according to its constitution
2
Attendance of the group meetings (is it 70% and above)
3
Active participation of members in group activities (such as savings)
4
Does the group have a constitution (and is it fully, or partially implemented) Having a constitution (5 points), Full implementation (5 points)
5
Group governance structures are functional
6
The group keeps its records well, (both program-activity and financial records)
7
All decisions made by most group members in accordance with the constitution
8
All members share in the goals and objectives of the group
9
Group members undertake regular development (or skill upgrading programs)
10
Group members composition is sensitive to gender, and other marginalized groups
Total
100
15c: Community-based Organization Group Record Keeping Templates
Group Membership Register
The below is a sample of group memberships register (that can be adapted to accommodate different group’s needs). The template below is for purposes of providing an example only and should not be wholly adopted.
Date of registration
Full Name
Identification document number
Address
Remarks- Paid up membership
Community/Group Meeting Minute Template/Content
Meeting Minutes “Minutes are the notes taken whenever a group meets. The Secretary of the group is usually responsible for writing these minutes. The minutes should include:
The date of the meeting
The place for the meeting (for example, a health centre or school)
The title or purpose of the meeting or activities
The agenda of the meeting
The names of members present, as well as those absent
What was talked about
What decisions were taken, who will be responsible for carrying out the decision, and by what date
What will be done in the future as follow-up
Meeting Attendance Record Template
Date of the meeting.
Agenda of the meeting
List of attendances – as provided in the table below.
No
Name
Identification document number
Signature or thumb print
Meeting discussions.
Agenda
Deliberations
Action points (who, what when)
Group Financial Record Keeping Template Content
A sample financial record template is provided below; it is not exhaustive as several templates maybe required for group financial record keeping.
The animal feelings analysis examines an animal’s experience of its own life. This tool has been developed specifically to help participants understand that their animals are sentient beings, whose emotions can be positively or negatively impacted by their state of health, environment, nutrition, ability to express natural behaviours and through people’s interactions with them. By helping people recognize that animals, like people, are sensitive and have feelings about what is happening to them, this exercise can improve people’s motivation to care more about the effect of their own actions on their animals’ overall welfare. In addition, this tool helps participants to assess whether their animals are experiencing a positive emotional state e.g. high and low energy, such as excitement, pleasure, sociability, choice over environment, comfort, satiety (fullness) and/or calm. This tool can be used either on its own as a sensitization exercise, or incorporated into the T22 Animal Welfare Transect Walk/Participatory Welfare Needs Assessment.
Tool purpose:
Time needed:
• To sensitize animal owners, users and carers to the fact that animals have feelings, which are expressed through their behaviour or ‘body language’. • To raise awareness of the observable signs and symptoms that people can use to assess how their animals are feeling. • To generate discussion around positive and negative factors influencing the feelings and behaviour of animals, and ways animals’ positive emotional state can be improved, and increase people’s motivation to improve it.
2 - 3 hours
Materials needed:
Sticks, coloured powder or chart paper, post-it notes, cards, markers. Animal jigsaw puzzle if available and/or or other visual aides to illustrate positive and negative welfare states.
Stages of Behaviour Change: Pre-Contemplation Stage
Project Support: Participatory Learning and Action Tools
Specific Topics: Animal Welfare, Feelings and Needs; Compassion / Empathy, Community Change Agents
Animal feeling analysis
Figure T19 Animal feelings analysis by an animal-owning community
As a first step in participatory welfare needs assessment, a group of animal owners identified 15 indicators that they could use to assess happiness and unhappiness in their animals. All animals were scored collectively based on these indicators, with three pebbles for ‘happy’, two pebbles for ‘medium’ and one pebble for ‘sad’. Only one animal scored three pebbles for all the signs assessed. The animal owners discussed why this animal was found to be so happy and most of the other animals were not. Based on the discussion the group agreed on several action points to make the other animals happier.
Animal Feeling Analysis
Step 1
Ask participants “what do their animals expect of their owners to be happy and healthy?” and ask a community helper to list these expectations on a sheet of paper using words or drawings”. Probe participants to think about what animals expect in terms of the following components which contribute to a positive welfare state (Five Domains)
• To be healthy? (prevention & timely treatment of disease, pain) • For good nutrition? (feeding & watering) • For their environment? (Comfort, rest, temperature, shelter) • To express their natural behaviours? (Freedom of movement, social interaction w other animals, positive human-animal interactions)
Please note: If participants are struggling to identify animals’ needs and expectations, ask them what they require for their own (human) wellbeing. How would you feel without regular access to water or time to socialise with your friends or ability to go wherever you want?
Step 2
Next, ask the community helper to draw a matrix with four columns and write ‘happy, ‘neutral’ and ‘unhappy in the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th top columns (see figure T19). If you feel the community will struggle to identify neutral states, make only the columns, with happy and unhappy in the 2nd and 3rd column.
While the community helper is creating the matrix, ask participants how they observe/know whether their animal is happy or sad. Where do they look or what do they observe to know this? List the general body parts, expressions, or behaviours they identify using words or drawings in the first column of matrix.
For example: several communities advised that their animals use the position and movement of their ears, eyes, head, and neck to show if they are in their ‘best’, ‘better’ or ‘bad’ emotional state.
Step 3
Next ask participants to detail the combination of behaviours or expressions that indicate an animal that is feeling happy, those that indicate that the animal is feeling unhappy, and those that indicate a neutral state for each of the identified signs in the first column.
Step 4
Once the matrix is complete, facilitate the group to reflect on what they learned from this activity. Encourage them to think about the importance of observing these signs and indicators and how this can help them to understand what their animals are feeling and enable them to better respond and meet their animal’s needs. Summarize the exercise by reflecting that animal have feelings like people, and they can use these signs and indicators to help them be sensitive to their animals’ feelings and understand what is happening to them at any moment and reflect on how their own actions have an impact on what they are observing in their animals.
Step 5
Summarize the results of the activity and have the community helper add any actions and activities to the community action plan. Agree on a date and time for the next session.
The matrix should be left with the community. Make a copy or take a photograph for your reference for future discussions and further action planning. Add a copy to your project action tracker. If they have not already performed one, agree a time when they will assess their animals by doing an animal welfare transect walk (T22) together.
If part of T22 Transect Walk
Step 6
If this exercise is part of the transect walk, first carry out steps 1-4 above. Then, develop a matrix with the agreed behavioural signs written along the top and the names of owners and their animals written down the side. You can use either numerical scoring (2 = happy; 1 = neutral; 0 = sad) or traffic lights to indicate best (green), better (orange) and bad (red). Go with the group on a transect walk to visit individual animals and assess their behaviour and surroundings. Discuss the body language of each animal in detail and associated factors that contribute to a positive mental state to build consensus among all the participants about how each animal truly feels.n tracker.
Step 7
At the end of the transect walk, sit together, and discuss which factors cause or influence the feelings of animals, both positively and negatively and reasons for this. Summarize the results of the activity and agree on action points that individuals and/or the group can take to make their animals feel happier. Have the community helper add any actions and activities to the community action plan. Agree on a date to repeat the exercise and monitor changes in animal feelings.
Facilitator's Notes: Animal Feelings Analysis
The animal feelings analysis is best carried out in small or medium-sized groups, as crowding around an animal may change its behaviour.
Participants should have a general understanding of animal welfare prior to conducting this exercise.
Behavioural expressions or body language may be different for different species of animal. There may be more than one type of behavioural expression for the same feeling. Encourage participants to discuss this.
It may be helpful to prepare visual aides of examples of positive and negative expressions of animals’ feelings to enable participants to understand the signs and symptoms of positive and negative emotional states.
Next Steps
Follow up with the T22 Animal welfare transect walkto support the assessment and monitoring of animals’ welfare and identification of common welfare problems to inform action planning.
As a first step, the facilitator should prepare a list of the observable indicators derived from identified expectations and effects which reflect animal-based indicators (body and behavioural related indicators), resources, and management practices. In addition, animal-based welfare indicators identified through T17 ‘If I were an animal’ and/or T20 ‘Animal body mapping’ exercises can be used to inform indicator selection for the transect walk. This list of indicators can then be presented back to the community to agree on the criteria which defines each in terms of good, moderate, bad condition/state (green, yellow, red).
Consider using other tools such as T17‘If I were an animal’ and T21‘Practice gap analysis’to look at the physical aspects of welfare such as food, water, shelter, disease and injury and their effects on the animal’s behaviour.
![Fig 14a: Process of Group Formation
(Adapted from [70, 111])](https://communitiesforanimals.thebrooke.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/image-3.png)
